The last couple of weeks have seen our weather in a state of complete flux. First, there are these sunny days with mild temps, followed by cooler days and nights with rain that comes straight down with a vengeance. Today, 20, April, is a beautiful Spring Sunday, 20C/68F, and our Stare Mesto/Old Town is crowded with the “cruise tourists”. I have mixed feelings about these masses “invading” our little city, but they spend as much as they complain. For someone like me, who would just as soon not deal with the loud and demanding tourists, I’m glad that they do come and spend some money in our Stare Mesto. Already, and we’re not into the “deep season” yet, I’ve met some very nice people from the US, UK, and Canada. I can usually tell who is who and if they don’t thrill me, I will not engage….

   I am also very happy to say that I have a Grand-Daughter, as of yesterday and my best advice to her is to come on out and join this mess-of-a-world we live in and enjoy it! All of my documents are ready and I have met with my lawyer  to square away my visa application. It has been a “long, strange trip”… to say the least. I count myself as very fortunate to have made the friendships that I have, and to have some great people behind me for this visa. I am convinced, more and more everyday, that our history is 1) overlooked, 2) one of a kind, and 3) more complex than anything I have ever studied. All the more reason for me to continue learning and to remain steadfast in getting our past out into the world. 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               HISTORY CORNER

   This Part III will be action-packed, since we will be advancing through the mid-9th century to the 10th. A word of awareness and caution… for those who are following; centuries, decades, and years will bleed into each other. I only offer this word of caution because history, at least the events, does not exist in neat little squares of an event happening here and another happening there, independent of each other. In other words, history does not take place in the “easy-to-follow” narrative of your grade school or high school history books. The reality of the situation here in 9th century Central Europe is that the appearance of the Magyars (future Hungarians), along with the Frankish influence, will tilt the political, social, and economic away from the early Slovaks. Great Moravia will go by the wayside, and overall, Europe will be “under siege”.

   There will be a reckoning with the history between the Magyars and our early Slovaks, The Magyar are a tribe, or group of tribes (7- allegedly) that will first  come into the Carpathians on raids, and by the early years of the 9th century, they had attacked the East Frankish Empire, Great Moravia, and the Bulgarians. The Magyars become the Hungarians and the Slovaks become invested in a very complicated relationship with them… for nearly 1,000 years! The post WWI period is their reckoning, and they unite with the Czechs to shake free from the Hungarians. As we will see from time to time until we reach the end of my posts, the Slovaks try many times to assert themselves into some form of self rule or autonomous political unit. We have many years before that takes place.

   It is at this point that the situation becomes even messier. In the middle of the 9th century our main players are thus: 1) Louis “the German” – King of East Francia, and Grandson of Charlemagne.                 2) Charles “the Bald” – King of West Francia, and Grandson of Charlemagne through Louis “the Pious”. 3) Rastislav – Duke/Prince of Moravia, and Son of Mojmir. The 1st known ruler of Great Moravia. 4) Ratbod – Louis “the Germans” head of the Eastern March- Bavarian edge leading east to the to the Slavs. It was Ratbod that initially harbored Pribina, & Pribina’s son Kocel; both Ratbod & Pribina fell out of favor with Louis “the German”. Thus they fled to the Lower Pannonian duchy that was ruled by Ratimir. The prevailing sense was that since Ratimir was a vassal of Ratbod’s power, the sanctuary provided to Pribina (& Kocel) was considered treasonous. 5) Kocel – Son of Pribina, and a ruler (duke or “rex”/king) in the “Lower Pannonian principality” in 864 +/-. Kocel held some sway with Rome, as he was able to send Methodius to Rome to be elevated to the archbishopric of Sirmium (today’s SW Serbia). Kocel held a measure of power as evident by his talks with the Pope at the time – Hadrian II. By 874, Kocel is no longer mentioned in our sources. Some historians believe this “Kocel” was a Frankish commander- but this has never proven.Professor Homza offers this in his latest e-book, which can be found here:https://www.brilla.sk/pdf/homza/The%20Handbook%20of%20the%20Oldest%20Slovak%20History/Handbook%20OSH.pdf?963

 

These are many influences for our last Part (Part IV) and the oncoming 10th century. Rastislav will lead us to Svatopluk (essentially Slovkia’s “George Washington”), and the combination of the stranglehold of the Magyars along with the waning influence of the “German factor”. Slovakia will begin its journey to cultural awareness. We will continue on with our history “flowing into the 10th century. It’s important to introduce the Magyars, soon to become the “Hungarians”, and the intermeshing of the territory of Slovakia with the Magyar’s “Kingdom of Hungary”. 

  The Magyars first appear when the East Franks, Moravia, and the Bulgarian Empire fought over the Carpathian region. The Magyar (this term can be both singular and plural), were hired mercenaries for any one of the competing powers in the Carpathian/Pannonian Basin…. they had allegiance only to the one who was paying for their service as horse-mounted soldiers.  The Magyar “conquest” began with small migrations (or incursions) from their homelands on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. By the middle/end of the 9th they were firmly established here in the Carpathian Basin, and Pannonia. There are many theories regarding what drove them west into this region. For instance, one theory has the Magyars being attacked by the Pechenegs (remember this name, as it will appear in subsequent posts), and the Bulgars. This said to have happened in the late-9th century, but there were already Magyars here in the early-9th century. As we will see, internal conflicts in the remnants of Great Moravia were used against itself by the Magyars, as they destroyed it in the early-10th century. The Magyars would continue in this manner by defeating the Bavarians, and conducting raids into Western Europe… even trying their hand at Byzantium later on in the 10th century. 

   That small outline of the coming of the Magyar, will be lengthened and opened up in coming posts. This part will end with the intrigue and relations between some from our earlier list, namely Rastislav and Svatopluk… as well as the coming of Cyril and Methodius. I feel I am being ambitious here, but I need to “overview” this era in order to set the scene for the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th century. 

   We would be remiss if we didn’t point out the both the 1st and 2nd Iconoclast Schisms. This was a period in the Byzantine Empire, along with the Christian church it cultivated; there was a denial of religious icons by the religious and imperial authorities. This is a deliberate destruction within a singular culture, against the culture’s very own iconography, symbols, and/or monuments. Religious historians (from the 17th century onward), theorize that iconoclasts had been opposed to intercession to the venerated saints, and denied the use of relics for religious/spiritual purposes. It has been proposed that the Byzantines adopted this practice from a growing Islam. There are geo-political reasons for this behavior, and it extended to monks and women. There are a myriad of reasons put forth as reasoning for this “iconoclasm”; some historians posit that the reasons are social/class-based… arguing that this schism created political and economic divisions in the Byzantine society. Nonetheless, we will be keeping an eye on the effects of this latest schism. [Author’s Note: 1st Iconoclastic Schism occurred circa 720’s to 790 +/- & the 2nd Iconoclastic Schism takes place in 814 to 842 +/-] As Central Europe and the Balkans become more and more entrenched in “Christianization”, we will be melding and folding these events and terms into our posts, they will become very important to our overall history in the long-run. This may be the point in which the brewing “Great Schism” takes place in the early 11th century; Constantinople and Rome will “ex-communicate” each other. This issue will return for us as we explore the 11th century.

[Author’s Note: At this point we will no longer be using “AD”, as we are firmly in the “Common Era” (CE)… also we will be seeing this blog/post in “parts”, simply because I feel there are far too many influences (political/social/economic) and events “bleeding” into each other. It is my hope to avoid “periodizing” our history here in Central Europe, and I will explain this concept in a short paragraph in the upcoming Part IV.]

   UMBRELLA MOMENTS: The Latter End of the 9th Century:

1. 862 -The start of the dynastic Ruriks, who later capture Kievan Rus’/20 years later (Oleg – Ruriks successor). The lineage of the urikids would run for more than 700 years, and lead to Feodor I of Russia (son of Ivan the Terrible). Another parallel story here is that the Rurikids have a possible basis for a connection to the Varangians –> Viking/Swedish-mostly —> who would go on to become the “Varangian Guards” to the Emperor of Byzantium…. only to turn and sack Constantinople in 860+/-. It was these “Vikings” along with the Rus’ that sacked Constantinople. The story is quite amazing, as time does not allow for me to narrate… certainly worth an interest.
2.  863 – The ivory and slave trade of Somalia are recounted by a Chinese scribe. Dan Chengshi was a poet and a writer, responsible for an early Eastern-telling of Cinderella. He is best known for his work on the trade in the East African Horn. This certainly highlights what have mentioned prior regarding the “Silk Routes” (land and sea). If those in the Orient at this time are aware of Africa, we can make a safe assumption that the news traveled by those that plied the sea routes.
3. 872 – A “Viking” from SW Norway settled Iceland, and although there were some before him (including Irish monks), it it commonly considered that Ingolfr Arnarson founded Reykjavik (now the capital of Iceland).
4.    864 to the end of the 9th century —> The Balkans become nearly entirely “Christianized” with Bulgaria under Boris I (864+/-), and Serbia through Cyril and Methodius under Basil I (870+/-).
5.    888 – The Carolingian Dynasty begins to recede in power, and is overcome in at least East Francia, by Arnulf… Charles the Fat’s illegitimate nephew from Carinthia. [Author’s Note: we will cover this in Part IV of our blog/post]
6.    Late 9th century – Sudan, holding the “Christian-Nubian Kingdom”, and repelling the Arab/Muslim expansions in the 7th/8th/& early 9th centuries… acjieves its most powerful and prosperous age as the Coptics (proto- Egyptian Christians) will come to an end.
7.    9th century – the “Post-Classical Period of the Meso-Amaricans begins as the Mayan civilization reached a period of instability in the inter-connectedness of city-states, followed by an abandonment of those cities by their respective populations.
8.   Lastly, the 9th century – at some point. Chess is introduced to Japan. Supposedly introduced to Persia in the middle of the 9thc, but originating in India in the 8thc, chess is taught and practiced in Japan. There is no succinct, or known date for this Eastern milestone.

     We will have a Part IV of this blog/post as we are compelled to usher in the age of Rastislav, Svatopluk, as well as Cryil and Methodius. This final part will prepare us for the next reading of our fascinating history… as we progress through our past here in Slovakia. This history of ours is unfolding like an intricate origami design. It is becoming more intricate and multi-faceted as I continue to be educated and nudged in the direction of the research that will yield the greatest amount of knowledge. As we continue on our walk through the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th, I would also like to make sound points for the inter-connectedness of the history of our region. At this moment in time, there are any number of of growing political entities in any direction of our cardinal points.

  In closing, I hope to include more photos of this life here for me, and the environs surrounding Bratislava. Our Spring has seemingly “sprung” and this city is in full swing. Until we meet again, I wish to express my most sincere thanks and profound gratitude to those who have been following me on this personal journey, and our beloved Slovaks on their journey through the earliest beginnings of their history. Please, take care of yourselves, and take care of each other.

                   

  

   These past couple of weeks have been fun here in Bratislava, as I have  been engaged with many new friends I am down to 2 “English tutees” and that is fine I was instructing a young Slovak in our history, as a favor to some friends, and he has achieved a better measure of where we have been as a country under the Hungarian crown. Moving around the Stare Mesto (Old Town), I am discovering more “hidden gems”.  This past weekend, I traveled with my best friend’s to Vysoke Tatry, and had many laughs. I feel very fortunate to have friends like this. We stopped along the way on our drive back South to Bratislava, and visited Stary Smokovec (Smoke-o-vets), and then stopped in Banska Bystrica (Bih-street-suh).

  I think the reason I love living here is that history is all around me. There is no need for the Slovaks to tear down these old statues or monuments, no matter how “unpleasant” the past may have seemed. It seems like a very useful teaching tool, plus there are very many Slovaks that hold the rememberance close… these events of the past are what have shaped us to be who we are. I have to believe this is the reason the US is so divided; they have never been able to realize that the past has made it what it is today. Neither good nor bad, it is the past… something that is “offensive” or extolls its “greatness”, should not be erased – it should be offered as a “teaching moment”.

   HISTORY CORNER

      I may have overlooked the overall scheme of the situation here in Central Europe in the last post, and I may have failed to point out that significant change would be coming. As  we summarized in our last post, the Avars would be gone as “the” power in Pannonia, and we will then experience the influence of the Franks, Rome and the trade that will grow with them. In this HISTORY CORNER, I want to focus on a few aspects of that which will direct our lands going foreward into the future. Our entire look here will be on the influence of the Papacy in Rome through Charlemagne, the coming of one of our greatest leaders (Svatopluk), and the role of the Franks in the growth of states and statehood here between the Tatras the Balkans. It is of the utmost importance to remember that Great Moravia is the beginning of a Slavic “state”; it will not last long, and more than a century will pass before the Slovaks have any stake in statehood.  I have said in previous posts that we are going through a transformative time, and it continues on a grander scale with the Frankish heirs of Charlemagne. Trade and economics, a subject we have not really dealt with, begin to grow by leaps and bounds. In Part III, we will include the 1st 50 years or so, and give our best interpretations of what history has left for us. Part III will see “Europe under siege”.

   With Charlemagne, virtually everything changed in Europe as a whole,  and  certainly here in Central Europe. The Christian/Catholic Church has been growing in power from Rome, and is on a par with Byzantium by the start of this 9th century (800 AD). After the fall of Rome in the late 5th century, the papacy never, in actuality, went away. [ Note:In the coming years, there might be as many as 4 or 5 factors exerting influence in the Early Medieval period; the Western Roman Church, Byzantium (Eastern Roman Church), The Bulgarian Empire, The expansion of Islam, and the expansion of the Frankish Empire… “Europe under siege”]   There are many different ways that it remained relevant. It regained its strength through the Ostrogothic, Frankish, and Byzantine papacy… strangely enough. Through the conversion of the “barbaric” tribes, the papacy in Western Europe gained prominence and power. In fact, the Ostrogothic Papacy (493-597) was the first to come to fruition with an emperor in Rome. [Author’s Note: It might have helped us if I had covered the rise of the Papacy from the fall of Rome. The truth is, that it never went away – just diminished in political power.] With Pope Symmachus (498-514), there begins “simony”… the selling of church offices, sacred items, or rituals. I have to believe that it is in this time that the Church begins to exert a certain amount of power over its subjects… but this is just the beginning. By the 9th century, the Papcy and the Church have inculcated itself into the complete fabric of life in not only Western Europe, but this trend will eventually come East to Central Europe. 

   Many are well aware of Charlemagne and some may be familiar with his impact. I am going to give a paragraph over to him because he was influential in the growth of the institution of the Church, and the political events that ultimately lead us (early Slavs/Slovaks) to the era of Cyril (Constantine), Methodius, the duality of the Christian churches (East and West), and the reign of Svatopluk.

   Charlemagne (748?-814) is regarded by some as the “father of Europe”. He encouraged the “Carolingian Renaissance”. His reign included a 30 year-long military campaign that pooled his conquests, uniting Europe, spreading Christianity, and incubating the re-growth of art and culture. By the beginning of the 9th century Charlemagne either ruled or had control over most of Europe as we know it —> France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, as well as portions of Austria and Spain. He was crowned the “Emperor of the Roman Empire”, and there is quite a great deal of conjecture over this event. Some historians  prpose that Charlemagne wasn’t entirely accepting of the crown, while others disagree.  In any case, he is the first emperor in 300 years, becoming the KIng of the Franks at around 20 years-of-age (768 AD), the King of Italy nearly 30 (741 AD), and then the first emperor of Western Europe (800 AD). A side note here is the fascinating accumulation of power during the rise of the Carolingians prior to Charlemagne. This is virtually a slice of early medieval history, rife with treachery, palace intrigue, and power consolidation. All of this power was accrued through the standing of Charlemagne’s ancestors as “Mayor of the Palace” [Author’s Note: At the least, if you search “Pepin the Short”, you will get an idea of how the whole process worked. The “Mayor of the Palace” was the true power-behind-the-throne! The kings at that time of the Merovingians (prior to the Carolingians), were left to be ceremonial figureheads… “rois-faineants” (Fr): “lazy or do-nothing kings”]

   So, it is through the combined events of Charlemagne’s defeat of the Avars, the beginnings of the Great Moravian Empire, and the early mechinations of the Church… that our history changes course yet again. The last to say here, on my part, is that Charlemagne’s reign (and those following him) left political and social alterations that were long-lasting and inherent (or essential) in the development of Europe as a whole. As the “christianization” of our territory advances, there is a growing symbiosis between the Papacy/religious power, and the strength of the empires. While this phenomena could be attributed to the Franks, in the end it comes from the Slavs themselves as we will see in upcoming posts. Prof. Homza explains this in his book, and you can find that book here:  https://www.brilla.sk/pdf/homza/?dir=./The%20Handbook%20of%20the%20Oldest%20Slovak%20History&sort=1

   Another facet that needs to be discussed in this portion is trade and economics, as this is evolving as well. With our lands lying completely inland, and the Danube as its only source of riverine shipping, goods and products came overland. From the Northern seaports in Poland (Gdansk, Gdynia, Elbag…etc), to the South on the Adriatic (Trieste, Friuli, Ragusa, & Dubrovnik) all trade traveled on well-worn routes back and forth, often “spider-webbing” to the East and West. The riverine ports begin on the edge of our lands at Passau (Germany), into Austria, Slovakia/Hungary, Serbia, and Romania to the Black Sea. Both riverine and maritime passage of goods brought a vast variety of products into Central Europe. Most trade routes remained from the Roman Empire. One of the most important routes was the Amber Road, from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic and Mediterranen Seas. Amber, furs/skins, honey, wax, and coastal crafts were sent to Rome, with glass, brass, gold… as well as tin and copper returning back north. This ancient byway still exists to this day; one can actually drive most of it through Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovenia to the Adriatic Sea. By this 9th century though, with the overt Roman and Avar influence gone, the movement of the Franks into our territory brings with it the availability of goods from Western Europe.

   Common to many markets here in Central Europe, in that day and age, were the so-called “low-value” goods farmed and fashioned by the peasants who are now beginning to work on estates near their local markets. For items that were rare locally, like finer cloth/clothing, arms… etc, buyers may well have had to travel a day or two to larger towns. In Western Europe, there were well developed urban areas, usually centered around a castle or church. It was not so here in Central Europe. Castle building would not begin in earnest until this mid- century, at least en masse, and Central Europe had burghs or towns that were more spread out and far-flung. Some, like Bratislava or Nitra were developed, and many settlements grew around mining sites, but overall they were spread very thinly. We will cover the urban growth of Slovakia in later posts. The vast array of produce were surplus goods, since the agricultural-based economy seconded overage, and existed on a subsistence level overall. Long-distance trade was rebuilding as luxury items came back into the offerings, and the old routes returning as the territory began to thrive under the peace that Great Moravia and the Franks would eventually bring to the region. We must keep this in mind always, that wars inhibited and interfered with trade when fought anywhere. As I mentioned earlier, many goods had to come overland, and if there was conflict, their movement was either ceased, or redirected. The river towns along the Danube provided the market outlet for many items, but it would be some time before Slovakia’s trading abilities would bear fruit in a bigger role.

   What is also important to bear in mind is that political changes transformed the economic and social conditions as well. As we progress through this 9th century, there will dynamic changes that extend into the transformation of our lands. There are many reasons, a multitude in fact, and to name a few: 1) Population growth, 2) settlement of the outer portions of our region, 3) the influx of new settlers, possibly related to population growth…, 4) lengthier periods of peace ensuing with the growth of Great Moravia’s stability, & 5) The emergence of the East Frankish Empire in the affairs of Central Europe.

   The next series of blogs will have us attempting to expose some of the dynamic nature of  the 9th century, and we must keep in mind that there is a continuation of the “class system” that has rolled over from the Avars, and will eventually be replaced by the Magyars (future Hungarians) as they appear later in this century. The sources tell us about the social divisions as “milites” (soldiers), “cives” (free citizens of towns), and “rustici” (peasants). Moving later into the 10th and 11th centuries, social categories become more prevalent. We  will follow the social stratifications that will take shape going into the 10th century, as everything changes yet again in Slovakia. This 9th century is critical for our early Slovaks as they are given a steady, and firm hand with Svatopluk during the Great Moravian Empire. But this doesn’t last long in the grand scheme of things…

   Following the term of Svatopluk, the Kingdom of East Francia will exert its influence until the Magyars arrive in Pannonia. In a future blog/post, we will open the door to the Magyars (eventual Hungarian “Kingdom”), and the  political, cultural, and economic reality for our Slovaks – that will last nearly 1,000 years.

UMBRELLA MOMENTS: the early 9th century (to 850 +/-)…

*) The Vikings begin raiding Europe, and found Dublin in 841                      *) Charlemagne dies in 814, and is initially entombed in Aachen (modern Western Germany)                                                                                  *) In Cambodia the Khmer Empire begins, along with the Angkorian dynasty at the turn of the century. (802 AD)                                                     *) An Arab fleet sails up the Tiber river (800 AD). [Author’s Note: my research doesn’t reveal what exactly took place, yet we know more about the raids of 846 AD]                                                                                      *) There is war between the Byzantine and Bulgarian Empires, from 809 to 815. After several battles in which the Byzantines are routed, they sign the “Treaty of 815”. [Author’s Note: I have designated these two power as the factors that determine events in the Balkans]                         *) Construction of the Giant Buddha is complete after almost 100 years of rock-carving. This occurs during the Tang dynasty (620-900 +/-), verily one of the Great empires of the medieval world. Tang dynasty notes —> cultural blossoming, economic expansion, winning diplomatic relations, & benevolent rule.                                                                                                   *) A period Arabic/Islamic growth exhibits incredible growth – including raids into both the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas. This includes Sicily as an “emirate”. The greatest event is a library in Baghdad, in which the knowledge of the Greeks, Indians, Persians…etc is translated into the Muslim world.                                                                                                              *) In Meso-America, there is an ending to the “Classical Period” of Meso-Americans. The Mayan Civilization is thought have collapsed at this point, and there are many theories as to how (or why) this happened.                                                                                                                       *) Further north, the Mississippian culture reveals the “Mound-builders”, and effects potent chiefdoms into the Eastern Woodlands cultures. The Indigenous cultures have spread from the Arctic through the whole of the Americas.                                                       *) Louis “the Pious”, son of Charlemagne, dies in 840 AD, & in 843 the Treaty of Verdun splits the Carolingian empire into thirds… we will cover the ongoing effects in our subsequent posts.                                        *) The first Norse settlers (Vikings) arrive to settle Iceland (850 +/-)

   In the next post there will be plenty to showcase, and I will be expanding each blog/post to perhaps 3 or 4 parts. I don’t think one post is sufficient enough to convey all of the aspects and influenced that govern the history here. Our next entry in the series will include the Archeological and Anthropological facets of our history… usually subjects that get short shrift from historians. We will continue to discover our fascinating history together. As we advance together, my only hope is to allow my dear reader to grasp the growing complexity of the political, economic, and cultural situation not just here in Slovakia, but in all of Central Europe in the Medieval Period. Also, I will expound on why I never was able to view this nearly 1,000 years as the “Dark Ages”… a moniker used by those in the early Renaissance.

   I look forward to any comments you might have… negative or positive,  are comments nonetheless, and help me to keep writing to inform and perhaps entertain new ideas.  I appreciate all of my readers and I am fortunate that you have taken time out to read these missives of mine from Slovakia. Until we meet again, please… take care of yourselves and take care of each other.

                                                                                                                                                                             

   The weather has changed here in Bratislava and it’s consistently getting warmer. I went to Levice with my dear Sister Silvia for her concert. It was held at a renovated synagogue. I had a hard time containing myself as the renovation was beautiful. That particular evening was a sort of fund-raiser for the space, and there were many examples of jewelry and art for bid. Silvia and Ondejko did a nearly one-hour long concert of brilliant covers, followed by a meet and greet in the after-room. The history of this building is awe inspiring. Built in 1853, and enlarged in 1854 with a mikveh – a ritual bath- its later years would be a sad reminder of Slovakia’s past during the Nazi era. In Levice, Jews made up nearly 15% of the population… they are mentioned as far back as 1713. This building was renovated to its full glory, and is now used as a performance space. It was truly an evening I will not forget for quite some time.

In the interim, I had stumbled into a great place that I found not far from my home. 100 Piv is an off-the-beaten-path neighborhood place, with great sandwiches, and quite possibly the largest pivo (beer) selection in the city. What I like about this place is the fact that I can drink non-alcoholic beer and a plus is that their ham sandwiches are the best! More important is that the staff is absolutely incredible! Erik,and Eva, as well as Ondrej the owner are committed to not only the beer, but also the locals. I found a Rock Island Public House decal and posted it among the many from Europe and the US. Both Erik and Ondrej were very happy about it. That one is for Jen and David Brown the owners of Rock Island Public House in my hometown of Blue Island, Illinois.

   This life continues to reveal very many things to me. I have finished editing/proofreading a paper by Prof. Homza, and there is talk of doing something major on Svatopluk (Sveyh-to-plook). In the deepest sense for those in the US… our George Washington or U.S. Grant. Like them, Svatopluk was legendary, but very human – with faults and shortcomings.  I am very excited to take part in this work. We will mention Svatopluk in coming posts, and I can only hope to do his role in our history any justice.

HISTORY CORNER

   As I stated in our last post, the 6th and 7th centuries were an incubative period for the early Slavs, we know the Germanic tribes inhabited Slovakia, had moved out, and with the Slavic Migrations the proto-Slovaks appeared. It should be known that despite this “grand” movement of people, we have always been here… the people that have inhabited Slovakia are eternal… no matter what their background –> Celts, Germans, Slavs, Avars… etc.  We will meld with the Slavs, Avars, Franks, and many others that will co-opt us and “rule” us through history… the Magyars included. While we will be pulling back our lens to include the regional histories, our primary focus will always be on this land of ours – between the Tatras and the Danube. In our last post, we became a bit more familiar with the surroundings and the lives of the early Slavs, in this HISTORY CORNER I would like to recap a few events of the very late 6th century, and 7th century before we move on to a summary of the 8th, and then begin the early 9th century. In our fashion, we will use a few maps and pictures to make clear what it may have looked like. 

   In the last 3rd of the 6th century AD, the Germanic tribes began to move away from our region, and the Slavs moved into to area marked by the Oder River (E Czech Republic, northward to the Baltic) on the West, below that to Austria, the Pannonian Plain, and the Balkans to the South. Mixed into this we have the previously mentioned Avars, who were hassled by Samo, after being turned away from Constantinople in 626 AD. Samo was a Frankish merchant/trader who became a “king of the Slavs”  for a short 30 +/- year reign. Samo is certainly noteworthy for having ruled the 1st political union of the Slavs, and also applying pressure on the Avars. Samo also cemented his position  by wedding many women of the tribes around him, and fathering nearly 40 children, among them 20-some sons. But, as far as the Avars are concerned, Samo was a leading figure of resistance against their power, using mostly Wends – as well as smaller Slavic tribes.  The Wends, whom we have mentioned before – perhaps as the Veneti, held a great deal of strength in the northwestern region of Central Europe…bordering on the Germanic lands. Unfortunately Samo’s reign would not see the end of the Avars, as the Franks begin their move to their east and very little would stop them. In Part II of this series, I want to devote at least a paragraph or two to the Franks and their influence on Central Europe.

  In Slovakia there had been a definite symbiosis between the Slavs and the Avars of Pannonia. Prof. Homza details this in his new e-book “The Handbook of the Oldest Slovak History”. I have provided a link following this paragraph. It is my firm belief that if you want to know how we came to be as Slovakia, his “handbook” is a great place to start. Based on his wonderful YouTube series, Prof. Martin Homza offers this reading to the world-at-large, and most pointedly to the Slovaks in the US who may be looking deeper than their immediate ancestry. Personally, it has brought me closer to my Grandparents, my family here, and the country that I now reside in. It is not purely “Slovak”; it reaches into the surrounding regions as well.  This easily accessible book by Prof. Homza is the result of many years of  his historical research and practice. I was very fortunate to have aided Prof. Homza in some small manner over the last few years, and I know it well. It has not only informed me, but whetted my appetite for a greater understanding of the homeland from which my Grandparents emigrated. In the end, my education at the elbow Prof. Homza not only taught me what I really didn’t know, but also has instructed me in the proper understanding of our history.  I will include this link in following posts in order to reach as many readers as I can.

  https://www.brilla.sk/pdf/homza/?dir=./The%20Handbook%20of%20the%20Oldest%20Slovak%20History&sort=1

   Returning to the Avars, they ruled here from roughly the mid-6th century (570 AD +/-) until the early 8th century (820 AD +/-)…according to Walter Pohl. They were an undeniable force  in Central, and Southeastern Europe. Their story is fascinating and reveals a horse-warrior culture that lasted longer than the Huns or Mongols in this region. In the end they would succumb to the Frankish King Charlemagne during his reign. The Avars were mindfully occupied with the Franks on their Western border. But early in their growth were more focused on the middle Danube. The “Slavo-Avar” culture grew, and remains are still being found in common cemeteries, as there were shared burial rites, interring instead of cremation, and creating many items they created in kinship. Common items were knives, jewelry (earrings, glass bead necklaces, torcs(see notes#1) – a metal collar, or neck-chain…aka “torq” or “torque”, and of course belt buckles and adornments for horse tack and weaponry. We will have a look at the Archeology and Anthropology in the 2nd part of this series.  There is a strange dichotomy here that I am not quite sure of; their is a question of the protection provided by the Avars to the Slavs. We know that the Slavs were famed horsemen in their own right, and widely known in the early medieval world as fierce fighters. While providing this “protection”, the Avars settled in with the Slavs and wintered with them. It may well be here that the two populations may have begun to “share DNA”. Again, Prof. Homza illuminates this subject in Chapter 4 of his e-book.

   Both Byzantine and Frankish sources (Theophylact/Byzantium & Fredregar/Franks…etc al) tell us that the Avars were inventive warriors that relied on their speed and agility in launching attacks that often surprised their enemies.  Following battles with Byzantium at Singidunum (Belgrade, Serbia),  beginning in 584, the Avars suffered losses of 30,000 (+/-), and the shine of the Avars as being invincible was washed away. Priscus, a Byzantine commander, went on northwest, and invaded Pannonia – the heartland of the Avars. The following series of battles which occurred near the end of the 6th century, will determined the fate of the Avars. By the earliest portions of the 7th century, and in my humble opinion, the Avars are essentially pushed from the scene in Central Europe and the Balkans. The Avars, according to Walter Pohl (See Notes #2), by  828 AD, the last “tributary Principality” is removed in the eastern territories of the Bavarians at the time.  As it turns out the Bulgars and their “empire” had begun to exert greater influence over the Balkans, and were “recognized” by Byzantium to rule over the lower Danube… from the “bend” at Visegrad on toward the Black Sea, into the east, to the Dnieper River, back west to the Adriatic Sea – a competing power to the Byzantines. Incredibly, this was a very potent empire that is the fore-runner of today’s nation that we know as Bulgaria… another Slavic country with fascinating roots (50-60% “Slavic”). As an aside, the early Bulgars are another former semi-nomadic group that came off the steppe earlier in their history to rise as a power in the Balkans.

   Of course there are quite a few “consequential” reasons for the Avar’s loss of power and standing. [Author’s Note: one of of our most important of the “5 C’s of History” comes into play here; Contingency. Our belief in “Contingency” is that if one event hasn’t taken place, then the outcome of another singular event would not be what it was… this is not “destiny”.] Beginning in the 770’s, the Franks, led by Charlemagne, extended their power into the heart of Central Europe as “protectors” of Christianity. By now, sensing the winds of change, the Slavs (our early Slovaks), sided with the Franks against the Avars. By the Autumn of 791 AD, the Avars were a shadow of their former selves. Their low morale; believing the Franks to be better than them, led to a breakdown in leadership in the Avar Khaganate, and if we couple this with the eagerness of some leaders to be baptized as Christians… the Avars are through as “the” power in Pannonia and elsewhere. I could quite possibly devote an entire series of posts to the importance of the the Avars. Their history is one of great influence in the past of the Danube region; from the middle stretch down to the delta on the Black Sea. Oddly enough, their reign is not as famous as the Huns, or the Mongols later on. It seems that history can be fickle that way.

   In an earlier chapter we looked at livestock as a food source, and as a growing product for income. What I didn’t mention was the importance of the horse. As their critical means of conveyance, and absolute necessity for their warrior standing as a feared Calvary, the horse had an exalted status. Many unearthed burial sites reveal the remains of their horses interred with the chiefs and soldiers. One aspect that would prove to be the end of the Avars as a horse-borne threat to the Franks was an outbreak of equine encephalitis. According to the Royal Frankish Annals this epidemic took the lives of 80-90% of the Frankish horses. It struck the Avars first, according to Walter Pohl, and the Annals state that the Franks received no resistance from the Avars. 

   At the beginning of the 9th (800 AD) century, we know that a new power (The Franks) is applying its hand to our Slavs/proto-Slovaks, and while it may have been that the Slavs were once allies to the Avars, they did their level best to accept the cultural/societal changes and adapt. If there is one trait that is characteristic in all Slovaks. it is their ability to adapt to change, then, now and always… this may have come down through the ages.

In our next post (Part II), we will clearly infuse the eccliastical, trade and  politics of the century (9th/800 AD). Our “situation” is becoming more complex here in Central Europe as we continue into the 9th century. The inhabitants are settling in and establishing a certain amount of sedentary existence. We have settlements becoming towns, and of course our Bratislava is starting to become a center of major power. As if being on the radar of the Romans, the empire of Samo, the Great Moravian Empire, and a satellite of the Principality of Nitra… wasn’t enough – Bratislava will become a distinctive capitol in its own right. Perhaps we will devote a blog/post to Bratislava and the place it holds in the history of our region.

   As we close, with this portion of our history, my aim will be to tie the ecclesiastical, economic, and political aspects together in 9th century Central Europe, in our following Part II we will also meld photos and maps into the change that occurs through the region, and once again follow the trail of change into the 9th century.. As stated in past blog/posts, we will follow the Archeologists and Anthropologists… as well as the Historians… one very important note here is that all of the events that I have described take place in a “stew-like” atmosphere. Ingredients get added, stirred, water boils off, and its outcome is never the same twice. Years “bleed” into each other, battles come and go, with some changes occurring slowly, and others placing consequences quickly.  As with all history, there is never anyhting that resembles a door closing and separating events.

UMBRELLA MOMENTS

Not forgetting the 8th century, but looking toward the 9th, we have… to offer:                                                                                                                            1) The Arabic Muslim epic conquering of North Africa and Spain are complete. This begins the expulsion of the Vandals from Iberia and a “Golden Age in “Al-Andalus”. Only Charles Martel  (Grandfather of Charlemagne) would stop them at Tours in 732/733.                                        The Arabic movement would be halted into Europe after a battle for Constantinople in the late-8th century… it will last until the 15th century. But Islam is by now on 3 continents.

2) As the century wears on, the Vikings become more prevalent, and begin raiding the shores of Europe and then onto the Mediteranean and eventually into the Baltic region [We will visit this in coming posts]                                                                                                                            3) The 1st Serbian state is formed at the beginning of this century.             4) At nearly the end of the 8th century, Charlemagne leads a war against the Frisians (Netherlanders/Germans- at the time) and puts an end to their revolt. This is one of many excursions that will consolidate his power.                                                                                                                         5) On the African continent, the West African empire of the Takrur became a power parallel to the empire of Ghana… at the time.                     6) Horseshoes come into greater use in Europe.                                                7) In Asia, The empress of Japan, Koken, sponsored and overlooked the largest and most prolific works on paper in medieval Japan. This same Empress ordered the printing of the Buddhist text.                                        8) Also in Japan, the Japanese Imperial court moves to Kyoto, under the Emperor Kanmu (794 AD). It is well known in the modern era as the “former capital of Japan”… for 1,000 years after this fact.                               9) The Jews begin to prosper in both the Muslim and Carolingian reigns, with the strongest communities in Spain and and the early Frankish/Germanic states.                                                                                                                   10)The Americas see the the Cahokia chiefdoms come to power as the center of power in the Great Lakes region south to to the Gulf of Mexico.

   I am always very grateful those of you that take the time to read my posts, and I urge you to comment, and let me know how I’m doing. For me, any criticism is constructive. I hope to have the next post -Part II – ready by the end of the month. Also, I must confess that I am now ready many papers and publications, so with that in mind, PartII may be quite longer. I find it important to explain as much as I can… to be more “wholistic” as these blog/posts go forward into history. As always… please take care of yourselves, and take care of each other _ we’re all we have.

                                 

  

NOTES: (1) Torcs, torqs, torques have been found in Archeology going back as far as the 8th century BC. Iron Age cultures, especially the Celts (who were here in Slovakia), treating the torc as not only a talisman, but also a sign of rank – both male and female.Scythians, Illyrians, Thracians, the Germanic tribes, the Vikings…etc, have crafted and worn them. The significance of this neckwear is global, with virtually all of the Iron Age cultures donning some sort of precious metal-braided neckwear.                                                                                                                      (2) I am reading Walter Phol’s seminal work, ” THE AVARS: A Steppe Empire in Central Europe, 567-822″. My only wish is to have read this book prior to any introduction of the Avars. This book is also available online in PDF form, and highly recommended for further reading on this subject. Prof. Homza states that it is also the book “is much more about the Slavs, than the Avars”… I understand now what he means. Also, in our next post, we will look at the “equine epidemic” that struck both the Franks and Avars.

Many apologies for taking a whole month since my last post. It has been quite the busiest 4 weeks yet for me… both essentially and existentially. There has been a “wrinkle” in my sheet as I have been faced with giving up drumming and putting my focus entirely on my research and writing. Music has been my whole life since I was at least 12 or 13 years old. Picking up drumsticks and playing the drums since early in high school allowed me to channel the love and energy into all that I heard in the late 60’s and the whole of the 70’s. While not a great drummer, I overcame the technique with hard work and a love for the music of the US… and later on “world music”. My dear friend brought this whole thing to light as I played along with them a few weeks ago… my time-keeping was beginning to vary, i.e., ahead of the beat/behind the beat…etc. I knew that it may well be time to let go of playing. I never had any illusions of being some “great drummer”, but only of being involved and paying service to the song. Also in the interim, I have been blessed by my association to a wonderful Archeology Professor (duly cited), and many friends that have taken me into the fold of life here in Bratislava. Along with all that is happening, I am grateful for the opportunity to live here, in this time, and have the life that I wanted to life for many years. I still enjoy getting to Jazztikot to see many friends play music live, and it feels cool to be consulted about certain songs.

   On top of all of this, my Father’s Birth Certificate has arrived from the US. Corrected by my dear, sweet Sister and our friend Amanda… it is the last document I need in this long saga of getting my visa to stay legally. Without the efforts of my Sister Sue (“Suzka”), I believe that I might be headed back to the US, with some dreams unrealized. From here going forward, I will be able to work harder on further postings, and give the maximum to the all of the history that matters to me… Slovak history.

HISTORY CORNER

    I promised in our last post that we were going to dive into the Archeology and Anthropology of our region, as it concerns not only the Slavic Migration, but I want to fold this into all of our posts beyond the 7th century.

   Where do I begin without getting too pedantic? After reading quite a few papers on the archeological discoveries here in Central and Eastern Europe, I do know that I would like to focus my study on our region… a more narrow geography – if you will. The conundrum here is that the Slavs as a group originated from a vast space. Just one more map to illustrate how immense their homelands might have been.

   It is good to know that this is not an exact science, and the frontiers could be extended in any direction of the cardinal points. We are also working with theories of “continuity” and “discontinuity”; an idea that works against itself since there have have always been people here in Slovakia… although not thoroughly Slavs. The previous statement is my idea supported by the Puchov Culture, dating from Classical Antiquity ( 8th century BC – 4th century AD/ roughly). In short, the argument is thus: “Archeology suggests a Germanic presence in the beginning of Late Antiquity, but by the late-6th century/early 7th century  it could be interpreted as “Slavic”.  It is this back and forth of the continuity of “space-occupied” that occurs in this period.  Archeologists and Anthropologists ask if there is some sort of integration period between the Geramic and Slavic tribes, or a complete “no-man’s land or depopulation of our territory. From the 7th century (600’s AD), archeologists recognize a separate, or different, arrangement in the settlements. (See Notes #1)

   Mapped sites display a disparity between Late Antiquity and the post Hunnic invasion periods. Also, we must keep in mind that there may have been a great deal of “absorption”. This is my term for those who choose to remain in their geographical regions and then to coalesce with the people that may have conquered them or their lands. While we are still quite a way from any Slavic state, this era illustrates a significant movement of people linked at the least by ethno-linguitics. As far as the Archeological and Anthropological aspects of the Slavic Migration, there is evidence that they brought along many identifying facets of their lives and culture, including handiwork, everyday tools, and the form of settlements they lived in. In some respects, these people of the migration were not unlike those before them. The settlements are arranged along the rivers or tributaries, thus illustrating the singular importance of water.

   I have always been keen on radio-carbon dating of the past (dendrochronology). After reading many papers regarding our past, I understand more about those that lived here early on. Many different ingredients come together to give me a clearer image of how our early Slavs existed. Through this method (dendrochronology), we understand how factors such as climate played a major role in shaping their livelihoods. In a wonderfully informative paper, Matej Ruttkay (2) describes where the various populations chose to settle down and base themselves. In this paper, Mr. Ruttkay exhibits a map of the settlements that I would like use to illustrate exactly where the tribes settled. This map shows the remains of the Germanic tribes overlapped with the places the Slavs settled down… it is always near the water courses. Since I am “maps guy”, they always illuminate a better picture in my mind of what I may have just read… this map from Mr. Ruttkay is especially strong.

[Legend for above map… Distribution map of archeological sites from the Migration Period (4th/5th centuries) in Slovakia: 1-settlement, 2- cemetery/ North Carpathian Group: 3-settlement, 4-cemetery/ 5th century: 5-Germanic sites in Eastern Slovakia, 6-settlement, 7-cemetery, 8-single graves. 5th/6th Germanic population: 9-settlement, 10-cemetery. Slavs: 11-settlement, 12-cemetery.] (see Notes # 2)

   To start off, I want to describe housing and dress for our early Slavs. For me, these two subjects may well be the most important parts of their lives, aside for horses, and provide a fascinating look at what their existence might have been like. What is known, and somewhat likely, is that the Slavs of this period lived in both “ground-level” and “sunken” structures. In the north, “ground-level” was the choice for construction, while the “sunken-hut” was found in the mountainous regions of Moravia, Bohemia, Saxony, and Poland. Most important though, they are also found in the Central and South of Slovakia. The “sunken-huts” were exactly as the name implies. These huts are dug out, and overlaid with timber roofing and some sort of sod or straw to top it off.

   As the photo shows there was typically a stove,  oven or hearth in one corner. One would have to imagine that this was a popular abode in areas with softer soil; how else would they be able to dig it out? Another  structure we are most familiar with, especially in medieval construction was the “wattle-walled”, ground-level house (or common building). Lattice outlined the end walls, with a combination of mud, clay/sand, and straw under it attached to “wattle” which was a woven pattern of lath or sticks.

   Common to all of these structures, whether sunken or ground-level was some type of heating device. It would be one of the 3; hearth, stove, or oven. Sebastian Brather considers that the Slavs didn’t use these heating units for crafts (if rarely), unlike those found in Northern or Western Europe. (See Notes #3)

   The landscapes of the early Slavic hamlets (not my term) has a few similarities between each other. While most are laid out in a rectangular fashion, there doesn’t seem to be a rhyme or reason to how the various groups used a particular space. After looking through many papers and Archeological these, it seems that I cannot see any single shape that is similar to the Slavs… from Poland to the Czech Republic, southward to the Balkans. It seems to me that the variety of the terrain was the sole influence in laying out a hamlet (or settlement).

   Before we finish with dress and clothing, I want to refer back to Brather and dendrochronology to look at the aspect of agriculture for the early Slavs/Slovaks. Brather’s position on pollen studies, reveals that there was a real drop-off in farming during the early Middle Ages. Brather points out that pollen studies present evidence that there was a possibility that our area might have been uninhabited from Late Antiquity to the Migration Period. We know this through archeology, prior to knowing this as a result of written history. Also in this period, we must mention climate in the 6th century. Termed as the “Late Antique Little Ice Age” (LALIA), there were brutal winters in 535/536, 539/540, and 547/548 AD… respectively. Proceeding from the 6th to the 7th century, we know that not only Europe suffered through this change in the weather, but so did others like Arabia and Asia. It is thought it be a component in the movement of the Lombards (Langobards) and Slavs into the Roman-Mediterranean regions. I may have mentioned the “Plague of Justinian” in a previous post, and this occurred in 541AD. As an aside, scientists believe that the Scandanavians may have lost half of their population during this period. Science continues to investigate this anomaly in mankind’s history. Theories run the gaut from volcanic eruptions, to meteors… this was an exceptional time in our development.

   I want to expound on the agriculture of this moment on our history, before we segue into dress and clothing. Since we have brought up the change in climate, the farming of our regions was similar across the board. Grain cultivated was common barley, wheat, oats, and to a greater degree – rye and millet. Rye was a favorite because it was hardy and produced under the most demanding conditions (rain/drought – various soil types). The pastures were occupied by goats, sheep, pigs and cattle. It is important to note that there were no fences to speak of, and this stock roamed free. If I left out horses, it was intentional. We will visit the horse in our next post, since they are what I consider the “apex” in the domesticated animals of the early tribes. Cattle and pigs were the main source of meat. Cattle provided not only milk and meat, but were important for draft as well, pulling carts and plows. Pigs were a greater source of food in settlements that lacked agricultural options in the way of crops – arable ground. Cattle were a greater dietary basic than pork… overall. Certain areas were endowed with wild game (fish, deer, boar,and/or various game birds), while other regions were not. Archeology also reveals a lack of stables, or shelters for domestic livestock, and it is likely that the stock was exposed to all weather conditions, and roamed the settlements and surrounding areas. We have looked at the agricultural side of their lives, and in coming posts, we are going to look at their horses and the linchpin of archeology – pottery.

   Here we will begin to try and draw a picture of how the early Slavs dressed. During this period, it seemed that people were “covered”, as it applies to dress. The word “clothed”, I feel, implies dressing that was more for show than anything else. The simple people are those that I speak of. In the next posts, as the societal and cultural divisions evolve, we will look at how the “upper classes” came to be, and certainly how they dressed. At this point, we are mainly concerned with the vast number of those who were not chieftains, are anyone in their retinue. We are talking about the vast majority of those whom were peasants and farmers. Some of these folks may have had larger herds, or grew on bigger plots, and might have been seen as “wealthier”… but overall it was a hard-scrabble life.

Everyday wear was essentially a “form follows function” sort of thing. Overall, cloth was similar across the board for Slavic peasants…as far as materials used, Patterns and accessories varied from one region to another. Wool, linen, or cotton was the most common cloth used, and due to the fact that dyes were were costly, and at times less available… earth tones dominated the color spectrum. Browns, grays, and greens were the shades of cloth in use for that time. Their clothing was worn loose for freedom of movement. The tunic was the singular garment worn by both sexes. For women, this was nearly full-length, with slits possibly on the sides for greater ease of motion. For men, it may have been waist-length, but with trousers worn underneath. Tunics became very adaptable, and thus could be folded or tucked along the small waist-band worn, to make pouches or pockets to hold and carry picked berries, seeds, or feed for animals. Cloaks were worn over the top of the tunics in cooler/colder weather; with both sexes possibly wearing a vest as well. As far as undergarments, there is less certainty about peasants making use of them until the 13th or 14th century… while may have- some may had not. (See Notes #4) https://brendan-noble.com/early-slavic-attire/#:~:text=Women%2C%20on%20the%20other%20hand,to%20interfere%20with%20their%20work.

   Footwear began with stockings, perhaps (not always applicable); often bare feet were inside of boots and shoes. For those that could afford it, leather boots and shoes were on their feet, but overall there was a tendency to wool/felt mocassin-type footwear. Peasants usually went without shoes in the warmer weather/summer, and obviously they laced up round-toed shoes and boots in the cold, snow, and rain. It should be noted that the pointed-toe footwear was a fashion of the “upper-classes”, and were useless in the fields, or as everyday wear for the peasants. As time goes on, they wear ankle-high/thigh-high boots that were laced, and then eventually buckled with a single strap.

  From the bottom to the top, headwear is not to be omitted. Only unmarried girls and prostitutes wore no headgear…”Respectable women” always had something on their heads. Men often wore broad-brimmed has for protection against the sun as they worked outdoors, or in the fields. Messier jobs jobs required a close-fitting/near-bonnet (similar to what the women might wear), that protected them from their work as potters, masons, butchers, or even in the forges as blacksmiths. The nature of their work might dictate whether the covering was linen, cotton, or felt.

   For outerwear, in the cold, rain, or snow – men wore cloaks or capes that were made using wool that was less-processed. The natural lanolin in sheep’s wool helped in shedding the moisture. It should be noted that the work of women shifted to the indoors during the winter – for the most part. A simple cape or shawl may have been enough for short trips out-of-doors. some would don a pelisse – a complete, full-length garment the was often fur-lined. [Author’s Note: To the Greeks and Romans, only the “Barbarians” and “Savages” wore fur outerwear. Of course, fashion and trends change over time and it eventually becomes acceptable to wear fur on the outside as a sign of power.] Last on our list would be nightwear and hand protection. Hand-wear was fairly common, and the modern dual-purpose of warmth and coverage has not changed in thousands of years – just the materials used. There are common notions that early peoples slept naked, and it may well have occurred in warmer climes, but even summer may have been cool in this period of the 6th/7th/& 8th centuries. We are talking about the common folks here – herders, farmers, traders, and the like. They were not interested in anything but comfort and cover from the elements as they worked. It should be said that many peasants (common people) had a “Sunday best” for worship (Christianity will come soon) or festivals, and we will certainly reveal this as our study goes on. In a couple centuries, Christianity will take precedence and things will change again.

   Our anthropology, following archeology reveals a great deal about our past, and the two disciplines have become a treasure trove for me. The picture of Slovakia’s past becomes fuller and clearer with each paper that I read, every map that I pore over, and every suggestion from Professors Konig and Homza. We have much more to discover, as we are on the cusp of the permanent habitation of our region.

   The last form of “civilization” will kick into gear, and we will have a growth in our region unseen in past centuries, and this 6th/7th century has been no exception. In our next post, we will follow the path into the   8th and 9th centuries, and we will revisit the Avars, have a short introduction to the Frankish Empire, and then devote yourselves to the 8th century. I feel the best way to advance this great story of ours (Slavs & Slovaks) will be to break it down into fractions that are tethered together by regional, ecclesiastic, dynastic, and trade ties. The pattern of life changes, as does politics, mores, our modes of thinking, and that change is influenced by the world surrounding us. It is no different in this place, at this time, and in the world of our Slavs/early Slovaks.

   Again, I offer sincere apologies for being a bit behind in my schedule. I am beginning on this path of discovery. Combining History with Archeology, and Anthropology is a different approach for me, but I really believe that it adds a broader spectrum for the reader. In contrast to the series of posts that I wrote when first arrived, this endeavor will be far-reaching and less of a “thumb-nail” of our past. It feels as though I have come a long way from the attempt at a thesis in college… way back in the 1980’s. I will return to “Umbrella Moments” in our post of the 8th century…next. I thank you all for continuing to follow me. Until we meet again, please take care of yourself… and take care of each other.

NOTES:

(1) I have been cautioned regarding the use of this word at this moment in history… along with “Gord” or “fort” prior to the coming period. Now that Brather and Ruttkay are using it…so shall we.

  (2)The North of the Carpathian Basin in the 5th and 6th Centuries AD. Author: Matej Ruttkay

(3) The Western Slavs of the 7th to the 11th Century – An Archeological Perspective. Author: Sebastian Brather

(4) Brendan Noble.com/early Slavic attire

    Today is 28, January, and  most likely this blog/post won’t be published until the 1st week of February. Although I live in a capital city, Bratislava has grown on me. With a population of less than half a million (442,00/2024), it still has a small-town feel. Apologies, most sincerely, as I have been engaged in learning two distinctly different disciplines to better convey what what life was like for our “early Slovaks”, Also, I have been kept busy with a growing social life. We have many attractions for me here. I have discovered Kino Lumiere, which is an “art house” that shows some of the best movies out there. Yesterday I saw “The Garden of the Finzi-Continis”, and I look forward to seeing the new “Nosferatu” this coming Friday. In this capital city we have not only an active music scene (as many will know from past posts), but we have a kinetic art scene on other fronts. Art exists here across the spectrum. we have a virtual kaleidoscope of live performances on-stage like opera, classical music, and plays. I might add that they appear on any night of the week, and I think it is very refreshing.

   The photo above is from an earlier gig by three of my favorite musicians here in “B-slava”… as I call it. While I have now been to many venues, Jazztikot is my “home”. Not only because of the variety of music performed, but the host Petko is one of the best in the business. I was not able to see Milos (Mee-lowsh) Bihary on the 31st, but I have been to watch him play the piano and there might not be a better “two-handed” player around… electrifying! I would be severely remiss if I didn’t mention that all of my work is written at “my office” – Dolnozemska Krcma… a little “shout-out” to a great place. Keeping all of this mind, and taking it in stride, I am focused on providing the best interpretation of our history, culture, and our place in the greater “European-scheme-of-things”. With that pledge, let’s move on to the landscape of our past here in Central Europe.

HISTORY CORNER

   I am aware that we are going back and forth, vacillating between the Early Middle Ages and Late Antiquity. To be clear, there are many inconclusive parameters that demarcate the two. For now we will use the “fall of Rome” in 476 AD +/-. I am learning two new discilpines; Archeology and Anthropology have pushed me to broaden my understanding of what truly took place in our region. Since I have begun learning under the aegis of Prof. Tomas (toe-mosh)Konig, there have been some small revelations taking place in a mind that has spent the last 40 years or so “thinking historically”. I am in a sense re-training my mind to be more aware of the world through the study of relics and the possible meanings behind them. Indeed, you can see how it is nearly impossible to lay this out in some lineal fashion. Our early Slavs/Slovaks are participants in a history that is always shifting and moving… at least until the 7th or 8th centuries. Also, in the spirit of combining the three disciplines (History, Archeology, and Anthropology) we will look at the “rules” for understanding each in Part III of this series.

   Our sources from past posts have been men like Jordanes, Procopius, Thylophact of Simcotta… et.al. Following them, will be our Archeologists  and Anthropologists, of whom I will list as we draw on them. So far, I am I just starting to grasp insight into this mind-boggling history of early Central Europe, especially here in the “Middle Danube” area. With the relics that are unearthed, we are able to further add in a few of the “5 C’s of History”- Context, Causality, and Contingency.  From Archeologists and Archeo-Anthropologists we can gather perhaps, what may have taken place on a day-to-day basis by an examination of the remains and relics. Patterns come to light as we are able to look into the life’s of the early Slavs/Slovaks. [Note: I will always include the word “Slovak”, even though they and thus the meaning, won’t appear for quite some time in history]

   We are able to understand beyond the normal patterns of historical thinking. In my mind, it is a mistake to think that anything about the past, present, and future is “pre-ordained”. We can use the Slavic Migrations as an example. Obviously no one blew a horn and said, “let’s all move!… anywhere”. There were no promises for any of the various tribes to have more in their lives than they did at the time. There are a myriad of reasons for this movement of people. Whether it is a need for more resources, the desire for larger grazing lands, access to better trade, pressure from other tribes on their livelihoods, or the need to conquer new lands… human beings are always looking for some sort of improvement upon their lives. It is also mistake to think that any occurrence in history is “inevitable”. All matters and events are dependent, or contingent, on other situations and outcomes. “All events and movements are contingent on that which takes place prior. History relies on the cross-points (or axes) of what takes place before, during, and after any exact episode in our past.” **

Our archeologists have placed certain “cultures” in and around the Carpathian Basin. The primary findings of the Prague Culture, Penkovka Culture, and the Korchak Culture (to point out a few),  expose us to a few of the Archeo-Anthropological groups in our region. As the map above illustrates, we see the groups we have been discussing… Sclaveni, Gepids, Veneti, Antes…etc. The archeology from their era, displays to us what life may have been like for them. In our next blog/post (Part III), I will include many more pictures in order for the reader to see their dress, living quarters, and aspects of everyday life. For this period, and for the sake of reference by the reader, we are working from the late 4th through the late 6th centuries. Some archeologists, like Marcin Wolosyzn, working from Poland, posits that in 375 AD, the Huns show up, and the order of Late Antiquity is turned on its head. The long-endured story has become legend, hence the Huns have become agents of change for a near-cataclysmic turn in the balance of power here in Central Europe. Most scholars across many disciplines believed the Migration Period to ease to an end as the Avars came of the Steppe, allied with the Lombards (Langobards), and overwhelmed the Gepids.

   I will close with this set-up for our next blog/post. In the hope of not sounding like I’m crying over spilt milk. it is, I think that some great providential force has gifted me with the energy and guidance of two of our most outstanding researchers/educators to lead me and patiently answer my questions. Unfortunately (spilt milk excuse) we are well past the pre-Antiquity Ages (Stone, Bronze, and Iron), it would have been fun to relate those periods to you. The deeper I dig into our past, the more fascinated I become with it – in all of its iterations. At this point, we will lay bare some of the archeology and anthropology of the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries. My goal is to go “hard-core” and reveal drawings, photos, and maps regarding our incredible past. This period is quite formative for the early inhabitants of this land between the Tatras and the Danube.

   I will bid you farewell as I once again offer apologies for the gulf in time between posts. I promise this: 1) That we will visit together with a new appreciation for what the archeologists do for us; 2) The next post will be “heavy on relics and maps”, & 3) That I will leave few stones unturned to bring to the larger world the phenomenon that is Slovakia’s past. I will also refrain from “Umbrella Moments” until we arrive in the late 6th century. At that point, I will (hopefully) be able to meld all 3 disciplines – History, Archeology, and Anthropology.

   I want to be clear to the reader; our history is not the singular history taking place, and I am trying to weave the narrative through those events around us… hence our “Umbrella Moments”. Always, always, always… I look forward to any and all comments from my readers, attempting to craft this blog/post into a constantly improved form of itself. Until we meet again, please take care of yourselves, & please – take care of each other… it is all we have in this world.

   **[Author’s Note: My personal observation]

   It seems like my days and nights are getting busier. I am fortunate to have a nice social life, friends and colleagues, and people that generally like to have me around. The Christmas season is in full swing here. Bratislava has two Christmas markets, and both are unique in their own ways. I am now in the 2nd week of our holiday – New Years Day is coming shortly, and I may not post until well after the New Year week.

   Although a Buddhist, I believe this is a season that brings people together no matter what the religious aspect is. The visiting and gathering is elevated to another level with food and drink. The notion of gift-giving is very humble and not audacious at all. I enjoy it immensely. Work continues on the various book projects, English lessons, and my own writing. Still very mild weather by my “Midwestern standards”; I think we were all waiting for some snow to fall to help us get into the mood… and it came in scads on New Years Eve. I was able to spend it with my dear friend Silvia, and it marks the first time in a few years that I stayed awake past midnight. Thank you Silvia for the invitation and a lovely time.

HISTORY CORNER

In our last post, we looked at the Slavs on the move across Central Europe and down into the Balkan Peninsula, and touched on where their origins may have been. As far as the naming of these people, we have heard quite a few varying misnomers. The term “Veneti” which is an extension of “Wend”, but also thought to come from the early Romans as the people from there are known to be from around the eastern portion of the Italian Peninsula. A Byzantine Greek, Procopious, first used many forms of the “Skla” preface… “Sklaboi”, or “Sklaboni”, etc. Conversely Jordanes, an Eastern Roman bureaucrat, would still yet, gather the Slavs into a relative group with the Antes and Venethi… another extrapolation of Veneti. This reference by Jordanes was in Latin, and Latin would be a preferred language in our territory for centuries to come. We will look at the autonym-exonym-endonym phenomena in a future post. It is incredibly interesting to me how the naming of the different cultures take place and stick. In his forthcoming book, the esteemed Prof. Martin Homza puts forth a clearer panorama regarding this subject.

   In our home territory, the Slavs, precursors to the Slovaks, are occupied with vying for some standing among the various tribes of Gothic heritage, among them the Gepids and Heruli. But in reviewing some of my notes, it would seem that I overlooked the coming of the Avars into the Pannonian Basin. This is a great error on my part because, it is very easy to miss or omit certain facets of this history. To turn a phrase, “there are many moving parts”… and it just becomes more complex year-to-year, decade-to-decade… and so forth. I will attempt to do my level best to bring this history to you without blemish or omittance.

   In that spirit, we will back-track to the 6th century. for a short digression on the Avars and their importance in our history. They were tribes with roots in northern Asia – Mongolia and Manchuria. Coming off the Steppe, and distinguished from the “Avars of the Caucasus”, their arrival begins a greater change here in the middle of Central Europe. This is significant, because from this point going forward into the future, the existence of our Slavs will be intertwined with the strength of the tribes coming off of my “Caspian Conveyor Belt”. 

Apart from the map above, and almong many of the maps revealed in research, the Avar Khaganate stretches east into the Steppe. Some maps have the Avars as far east as the Aral Sea. In the next blog/post, we will discuss the intricacies of these tribes intermixing with our Slavic inhabitants. A word on the symbiosis of the period. This period of the Avar Khaganate is a “settling” moment in the history of the Danube/Pannonian Basin. We must also mention the Gepids and the Antes as major influences on the cycle of tribes here in the Pannonian area. Jordanes, in his book of tales (or history), tells us Gepids were of Gothic origins, and came from an “island across from the mouth of the Vistula”. They are considered an “East German tribe”, and some believe that they were already living and  settled in the area which they were known to be for the remaining span of their existence. They will eventually be swallowed up (infused into the Langobards, or Lombards, and the Vandals into the South of Europe). In the mid//late 6th century, the Gepids were routed in battle against the Lombards (Langobards) and the Avars, and thus went on to southern Italy, while many remained in their lands within “Dacia”. This is an area of modern Serbia, Romania, and Hungary.

   Before we talk about the entrance of the Avars onto our stage, we must not miss the Antes. The Antes were no less powerful, and they are a proto-Slavic group from Polesia. There is a great deal of conjecture, and disagreement regarding their origins, and their entire stake in Central Europe/SE Europe, and we should know that the Antes may very well have been proto-Slavic speakers, and tied tightly to the Romans by via “gold” (they were paid mercenaries) and the necessity for Rome to hold off the Ostrogoths and their incursions into Lucania (southern Italy). The Antes would also attack the Sclavenes. They would be “Roman allies” until they were defeated and subsumed by the Avars.

   Jordanes and Procopius provide early “historiography” regarding the Antes. Both, as well as others, have posited that the Antes were  “proto-Slavic” in nature. Of course there is much debate about the origins and descendants of the Antes. This should come as no surprise as it is known that the Antes have been studied only since the late 18th century (1780’s/90’s)… an indication of the confusion and endless debates associated with these tribes/tribal confederations. As with most, the Antes are not one singular tribe, but most likely a “tribal union at-large”. It is a grand error to think that any or all of the tribes, ethno-cultures… etc, are of a singular background. In our later post(s), we will discuss the melding and inter-marriage of the vatious “tribal entities”. This explanation will coicide with our discourse on the misguided idea of “civilization/empire by sharing of products”. I have an aversion to this notion of how civilizations/empires have come to fruition or power. At this point, (539-40 the Slavs are referred to as “Sclavenes”, and the Antes, after Procopius and Jordanes reported that the Romans curried favor (and a war) between the Antes and Sclavenes; attempting to “divide and conquer”. There are stories of the “Huns”, Sclaveni. Bulgars, and Avars capturing almost 150,000 Roman soldiers and far more than two dozen forts; a continuation until the mid-6th century- when the Antes are allied with the Romans. In the end,  there is no known historiography about the Antes; there is daresay about the fate of the Antes. Some say say that the Antes were overcome by the Khazars and the Bulgars as agents of the Byzantine Empire, and some theorize that they were “absorbed” by the Dulebes, a tribal union of Sclavenes (Slavs) from the 6th to the 10th/11th centuries. The Dulebes are a South-Bohemian middle Danubian tribe – that origins from one specific region; another Slavic tribe whose beginings are questionable. Again you may ask, “Niel, why do you spend so much time on this ‘small tribe”” in the background of Central Europe? The Antes were a major influence on the tribal (pan-tribal) scene, and a de facto power until the arrival of the Avars. It is generally assumed that the Antes were closely related to the Slavs and therefore never really “disappeared”.

   There is a connection between the fall/disappearance of the Antes and their absorption with and into the invasion and occupation of the Avars. There is much written about the origins of the Avars; some comes to us from Pricus of Rhetor (Eastern Roman (Greek?) diplomat, historian, and rhetorician), and there is some speculation that his observations are hearsay and questionable [See: Prof. Denis Sinor]. There is great confusion among the the observations/interpretations of the early note-takers. The history here vacillates between Menander Protector (Byzantine historian), and Theophylact Sinocatta (7th century historiographer and is considered to be the “last historian” of “Late Antiquity”).  Both were leery of the power of the Avars as both authors equated them with the Hephthalites*, which were an Iranian form of “Huns”,,,”White Huns”, that were a force of power in the Central Asian/Iranian(late-Persian) territories. Attempting to dispel the worth of these tribes/tribal-unions is a lot cause. Unfortunately, there are so very many to mention that will come off the Steppe, or areas near the Steppe, that it would become an infinite “etno-cultural-quagmire” for us if we were delve into it.

    Again, this history is incredibly complex and the mere fact that Paul the Deacon (aka “Paul the Diacon”) writes about the Avars as a fusion of the Huns, and blends the Avars into the vast Central Asian Steppe. Paul views the Avars as rivals of the many Turkic tribes, and vassals of others. His observations just serve to illuminate the intricacy of this moment in time.

   Let us return to the land between the Tatras and the Pannonian Plain. It is purported that the Avars were fleeing the Gokturks on the Steppe above the Black and Caspian Seas. In the mid/late 6th century the Avars sieged Byzantium (c. 568), and this siege would last more than 50 years. It is primary that we uncover this tribe/tribal confederations, because the Avars overtook the lands the Gepids once held, seen as roughly the “Middle-Danube” – Romania, Serbia, Hungary, and the Southern Carpthians. The Avars had that land and more, which they had taken into their control, and largely impacted the migration of the Slavs into SE Europe.

   The Avars, whom we will see in coming blog/posts, played a pivotal role here in Slovakia. They are just one of many that will do so, as there will yet be others coming off the Steppe to leave their mark on Slovakia, and the Slovaks-to-be. Yet we must proceed in our understanding that here is no “linear-thinking” here. As I have stated before, there is no true beginning among these tribes/tribal confederations as there is constant movement and as a result there is not a “zero-point” or ethnogenesis to begin from. Again, make no mistake folks, these are people who could ride backward on a galloping horse and launch arrows at speed – and with deadly accuracy (their abilities are just an updated improvement on the mounted calvary that preceded them). The Avars were superb horsemen, and a Steppe culture that included, numerous ethno/anthropological peoples (Iranic, East-Steppe Asian…etc), the early Middle Ages were truly a time of change. The Avar Khaganate set the tone for others to follow here in the Pannonian Basin. Our next post will add to what we know about the 7th century (600’s AD), and exhibit the change that is yet to come, as I hope to peer into the cultural aspect of the early inhabitants of our region.

UMBRELLA MOMENTS (for the early 7th century)

   * Islam spreads from the Arabian Peninsula following Muhammad’s death in 632. Persia, Syria, Armenia, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa are conquered.

* The Lombards continue to dominate most of Italy; this will last nearly another 50 years – they are defeated by the Franks in the late 8th century..

* Northumbria is dominated by the Anglo-Saxons in the British Isles.

* In Japan, the Asuka period continues through this century (7th).

* The earliest English poetry is written

* The Gupta Empire in India has fallen (6th c) and the Hartha unite Northern India into smaller states.

* In Meso-America, the largest pre-Aztec urban center (Teotihuacan) is sacked by invaders, and burned to the ground. Although recent archeological investigation suggests that it may not have been invaders at all, as only the residences and structures of the elites were destroyed. This theory leads to supposition that the sacking may have been an internal revolt of some sort, dispelling the notion of invasion by unknown entities.

* Smallpox spreads from India to Europe (600).

   There are many events to highlight from this century (7th) and we will continue on with some of them in our next blog/post (#8) with the Avars, the lives of the people, and developments in Central Europe until the end of the 8th century. It is my sincere hope that you all had a wonderful holiday season. I am wishing the best for us as we begin a new year. I thank each and everyone for stopping here to peruse my post regarding the foundation of our magnificent cultural, and the growth of our history. Until we meet again, take care of yourselves… and take care of each other.

   In many ways the Slavs were able to outlast those that came into their territory (or territories). The singular tribal entity that paralleled them were the Magyars. This was a group, that we will see later on; but linguistically were unrelated to the Slavs. Yet the questions still beckons: “Where did the Slavs come from?”. As I am still learning at the elbow of Professor Homza, the answer is a simple one. They have always been here. Our first awareness of them is in the how the “Biblical Theory”, and “The Humanistic-Renaissance Theory” overlap with some characteristics, and diverge with others. The “Biblical Theory” has the Slavs as bearers one of the many languages of the Tower of Babel. They are considered to be the progeny of Japheth, a son of Noah. This is Book of Genesis stuff folks… can’t make it up! The theory that I believe to be a tad more accurate is the “Humanistic – Renaissance Theory”. As we have mentioned the Scythian/Sarmatian connection in earlier posts, the Slavs are thought to be descendants of these tribes by the “Enlightenment” historians. They too believe in the notion that the Slavs had biblical ancestors, and may be Illyrians, or that again, they may be related to Sarmatians. In my travels through the Balkans I spotted this term used in everything from Petrol stations to Cafes.

   Just a word about the manner in which history has been studied, and generally viewed by those well past the events. I have to think that there is a serious disconnection between them and the events they wrote about, and this was fettered by a misunderstanding. The study of the historical past, and thus historiography, was the discipline that it today. It was, for the most part observational – written from the viewpoint of those who saw (or heard about) the events that took place. History was still not a science, thus the writers were much more subjective than they are today. Generally there was a greater bias included in past chroniclers prior to the development of historical study than there is today. Today, historical study has a significant investment in greater objectivity, and the curtailng of personal preferences (subjectivity). In that past, there had been a greater emphasis on the separation between the Roman Empire as “organized”, and anything outside of it (the tribal frontiers) as “disorganized”. Not only were the “historians” and “geographers” of the time extolling these ideas, but it will continue for quite some time… at least 1300 years or more. We will examine that bias and nomenclature in a later post.

   In the border areas – the frontiers- the tribes acted on the most basic levels of their hierarchy, until adopting the methodology of the Romans. With their diversity, and varying ideals of leadership, the tribes on the frontiers (I refuse to label them as “barbarians”), evolve from charismatic leadership to democracy. Most often both traits are combined, as they are now – times haven’t changed that much. Still, I want you to keep in mind that this vast community were warriors first, and this was recognized by the Romans. Many of these tribes, and/or alliances, became mercenaries for them. The Slavs were no exception.

   Let’s return to the Slavs as the rising force in Central, Eastern, and Southern Europe. Their origins are consistently being debated, yet the going consensus is that they have always been here. There wasn’t a massive “Migration Period” for the Slavs as there had been for the many coming west into Europe from the Steppe. They inhabited an area that was in the an area that may termed the “Upper Plains”. between the Vistula (Poland), Middle-Lower Dneister (Ukraine-Russia), and down to the Black Sea. This is not a perfect delineation of their range; you must look at it in terms of an “amoeba”, if you will. The outer edges are constantly shifting and moving. As I have extolled the archeological remains in our area (Slovakia), this remains true for the greater geographic regional extension of the Slavs (see map above).

    As far as the name “Slav”, there are quite few viewpoints. In his forthcoming book, Prof. Martin Homza contributes to the idea that who you are to the outside world is generally what you are called by them. This notion also applies to what you call yourself as a people, or as people of a given community. An important aspect of the identification of the Slavs, as there were few written records of them prior to the Romans, is that the Slavs have been referred to as “Veneti” by the Romans. I have to believe that the unknown to the Romans, was made familiar by them by naming the Slavs a tribe that once inhabited the Italian Peninsula during the early period of Rome – the “B.C.” period. Then so the Slavs at this time are named along with some of the tribes in the area, connected by some who may be infamous to the Romans of the era. We will not hear the term “Slav” for another century or so.

   By the time historiographers from Byzantium catch on to the Slavs… the Slavs have a name – around the late 5th/early 6th century. Procopius of Caesarea, Jordanes, and Theophylact of Simocatta will be our references for some time, going forward. I am going to continually visit and draw on the linguistics, and both endonyms (what we call our community), and exonyms (what we are called by those outside of our community). This naming of the Slavs, and others, is entirely a “geo-linguistic” phenomena, and a subject we are going to look at in our next post (#7). This matter is truly important for the understanding of the nomenclature of “Slovakia” and “the Slovaks… to come later.

   In the end there wasn’t a true “Slavic Migration” as they had only moved a few hundred kilometers from where their origins might have been. There is still a great deal of conjecture surrounding this subject.  From south of the Baltic Sea to nearly all of the Balkan Peninsula, tribes – people- were on the move. For instance, a Proto-Slavic tribe by the name of “Lusatian” covered most of modern Poland, along with Celts, Scythians, Sarmatians, Germans, and various Baltic-Slavic tribes. This was done in a shift to their north and west. Eventually some tribes, bands, or alliances of many tribes – would move out, some would coalesce with larger tribes, enter into the overall mix and settle… becoming more or less modern Poland over time.

   In the map above, we can see that essentially the Slavs were necessarily in a place where they became who they were first… as Polabians, Pomeranians, Lusatians, Glomatians, or Galicians (not the Spanish of NW Iberia). The map above illustrates how some tribes had traveled during the 6th and 7th centuries (500’s and 600’s AD). And yes… some had crossed the Carpathian Mountains into the Balkan Mountains, and down into the Peloponnesus (the peninsula in Southern Greece). Over the coming centuries, many tribes that we are familiar with will disappear from historical record, as others will become quite notable; this is the case with our Slavs. As we head into the 7th century here in Slovakia, the overall situation solidifies only slightly.

   The above illustration is more proof that art and the “artisanal” is very much alive and well. It is a brooch/pin used to clasp capes or cloaks, and made from Copper. Yet another subject we will explore in coming posts. There weren’t any “Dark Ages”… creativity continues unheeded by the tumult and uncertainty of the times… beautiful, isn’t it?

   Now behind us, the Western Roman Empire has fallen to the Goths, and Byzantium becomes the seat of power for the Eastern Church. By the end of the 5th century the Slavs are a sought-after fighting force. The Slavs marched through the Pelopennese, into Asia Minor, threatening Byzantium, and adding to the discord in those Eastern Roman provinces. Greece, Turkey, the Balkans, and most of Pannonia are inundated by the Slavs. There are ideas that the Slavs migrated to the Iberian Peninsula (now Portugal and Spain), and North Africa as well – with the Vandals. The 6th century finds the Slavs expanding their reach, whether “invasive” or not, and by the 7th century Pope Gregory I of Rome is worried. Gregory “The Great Saint”, sends a letter to the Bishop of Salona (near modern-day Split, Croatia), and he states this much (paraphrasing), “I am concerned that they (the Slavs) have begun to enter into Italy via Istria” (the peninsula at the northernmost point of the Adriatic Sea)… the Slavs are still on the move. In our next post we will take the turn into the 7th century.

UMBRELLA MOMENTS

   In this time, the period of the 500’s A.D., somehow the era of “Classical Antiquity” is declared to have ended, and the “Middle Ages” have begun. This period was also mistakenly termed the “Dark Ages”… a moment that many consider a “three-fold decline in economics, intellectuality, and culture”. As the fall of the Western Roman Empire continues, the Franks have managed to grasp a portion of modern France, Gremany, and some of the eastern frontier in the tumult.

   In the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), Justinian has reacquired North Africa. Justinian also vanquished the Vandals on the Italian Peninsula in the hope to re-establish the Western Roman Empire. In our next post, we will revisit this ruler that many considered to be one of the most influential emperors of the Roman era. The “2nd Golden Age of the Persians” finds the Sassanids at the peak of their power before falling to the Muslim conquests in the following century. This empire of the Sassanids was the last of the pre-Islamic empires in Persia. This empire competed directly with Rome. Included in the Sassanid Empire were all of modern-day Iran, Iraq, most of Saudi Arabia (East and south), the Caucasus, The Levant (Euphrates west to the Mediterranean – Israel, Jordan, Lebanon,Syria…etc).

   Further East, the Indian empire of the Guptas had been defeated by the Hunas in roughly the middle of the 6th century. Japan witnesses the Kofun lose power to the Asuka. The Asuka reign is associated with the rise of an artistic and architectural period, not to mention a change in society marked by a religio-philosophical pivot to Buddhism. There are inventions galore,,, the “Anno Domini” system,  which form the basis for the Gregorian Calendar and the current “CE” systems. Backgammon is invented in Persia, and Persia experiences Chess, which comes from India. In Byzantium, Silk becomes a “palace-protected entity”, after being intoduced from China.

Lastly, in the Americas, the Olmecs yield to the growing power of the Mayans on the Yucatan Peninsula. There is increased communication and trade among the tribes further north in today’s U.S. and Canada. The South American continent witnesses many smaller civilizations that presage the powerful Incans four centuries later. Among them are the Upano River Valley sites. Century by century the globe continues to change, and it is not limited to the European sphere… we must be aware of this.

   As we proceed slowly through the history of the Slavs, and so, Slovakia as well; I want this 6th post to lead us into the various aspects of life for the ancestors of the Slovaks. It doesn’t end with the Slavs themselves. There are many still to come into our land between the Tatras and the Danube. In our next blog/post, I hope to lay more ground  to walk on for those interested in our fascinating history. Thank you for taking the time to read this humble post. There is a mountain of historical facts and myth, and wading through it is often more time-consuming than I plan for. While it is nearly impossible to expose the underside of every rock I turn over, it is my hope to give a clear picture of the grand scale on which our antecedents came to be. Until we meet again, please take care of yourselves… and take care of each other.

   Winter has eased into its early phase here in Bratislava, with a pronounced nip in the air, and weather that the forecasters didn’t call for. Some days start out cloudy, and somehow, despite the “weather outlook”, rain and sleet come out of the sky. It’s a bit like living in Chicago; the same applies here as well.. “if you don’t like the weather, hang around, it will change”.  On the other hand, the apostille of my birth certificate is done, and now hopefully we can begin the visa process. I’m starting to get excited at the prospect of being able to move around a bit more freely. There was a great buzz last Tuesday night at Jelen as I sat in the corner with the “big boys” and they were kind enough to use English when discussing my “situation”.

   This is blog/post #5 in my renewed explanation of Slovak History, Culture, and Geography.  In the following we will look at the end of the Western Roman Empire prior to the appearance of the Slavs into the European sphere. I want to be clear here; The people that are today’s Slovaks are the descendants of not only the Slavs, but the peoples that have been a part of her history from time immemorial. Archeology plainly supports this theorum. While it is true that many tribes  traversed, and came to stay for a spell, and they are just a small part of our history… each was instrumental in their own manner, they mixed with the locals and thus departed with a small portion of that particular genealogy. The inculcation of the Slavs into Europe, especially here in Central Europe, was to say the least, a major boost to the genealogical background of our present Slovak; they have always been here.

   There are many claims, by a long list of historians, that this land was unsettled, or without some sort of sound citizenry. That is fiction and quite untrue. The Slavs have always existed here with their language intact, and some aspects of the linguistic patterns were co-opted by those that were here, together it was melded, and grew to become used in dialects across early Slovakia. It would not be for a few centuries that early Slovakia would have some cohesion, but in this post we will talk about migratory period. [Note: Zbigniew Golab is a great resource – his thesis on linguistics and the original Slavs is invaluable]

   In our earlier post, “Slovakia: “The Migratory Period”… we discussed the Huns and their forays into the Roman sphere. We didn’t talk about “The Crisis of the Third Century” (235 to 305 +/-). In this period, we must be acutely aware of the fact that the “Pax Romana” is well over and that the vast number of tribes are a greater danger to Rome than they had been in the past. The “Barbarian Invasions of the 3rd Century”; this is an  illustrious crowd. On the Northern frontier are the Picts, the Caledonians, and the Saxons in the modern British Isles. While to the near-west of Rome orbit the Frisi, Saxons, Franks, Allemani, Burgundians, Marcomanni, Quadi, Lugii, Vandals, Juthurgi, Gepids (to be prominent in Slovakia), and of course – the Goths (two tribes each/East & West). The tribes in the Danube/lower Danube – we may be familiar with, some new/some old. The Dacians, the Alans (off-shoot of the Sarmatians), the Heruli, and various Slav-related tribes from the Carpathians radiating outward into modern Western Russia to the East and Poland to the north. In short, although Romans may rule most of the Mediterranean Basin, the area from the North Sea across to the Baltic Sea, and South to the Pannonian Plain are a constantly shifting mass of tribes jostling for position and supremacy.

The “crisis” is well due to many factors.  Rome’s resources are thinning, and it is unable to protect all that which was included in its “Imperial Form”, I.e., organization, economics/wealth, and trade networks, as well as its physical entities – military, structures and the like… the aforementioned tribes are much more than an existential threat, they are certainly a physical threat. We emtioned the “limes” (lee-mess) on the Danube a post or two back, and these fortifications were put in place to hold the line against attacks on Rome’s Northern border (frontier). As time goes on and the numerous tribes become melded, unified, and allied – they give Rome its greatest challenge. By the beginning of the 3rd century, Rome has been or is at its peak power power. I believe this where the “double whammy” occurs. The first is “The Crisis of the 3rd Century”, and the second is the “Barbarian Invasion” [Note: Quotation marks are mine; the tribes were no more barbaric than the Romans] In this critical period for not only Rome, but for our lands at the time, another transition will take place, and again our early Slovakia changes.

   Almost always in my opinion, the second of the “double whammy” gets lumped in with the causes of the crisis. I have had a tendency to believe most that I have read about this period, and my humble opinion sees the tribal existence as the biggest influencer of the crisis, alongside the litany of probable causes. Here are some of the “probable causes” of “The Crisis of the Third Century” beginning about 230 AD (+/-): civil war/infighting for power, the “Plague of Cyprian” (248 – 262 AD), a breakdown in commerce/trade, a downturn in production of food (invariably a result of the pandemic/plague), and as a result, an ensuing labor shortage. Yet the pressure of the tribal aspirations and a Peasant’s rebellion make for a complex moment of overall instability for the Western Roman Empire.

    In the end, after attempting to weather the 50 years (+/-) of the “Crisis of the 3rd Century”, the Western Roman Empire is deeply sapped and weakened. Near this point in Rome’s history appears my own favorite – Diocletian. He institutes the infamous Diarchy (“rule of two”) first and then the Tetrarchy (“rule of 4”), and then he begins work to divide the Empire into East & West. Diocletian also, in doing this, stabilized the Empire. He subdued the Sarmatians, Carpi, and the Alemanni – adding to this he also defeated and lessened the power of Persia under Bahram II.

    Reading this particular blog/post, you may be asking; “Why is Niel spending all of this time with Rome, and what does it have to do with Slovakia”? The answer is simple. This is all about the “6 C’S” of historical study —> “Change Over Time”, Context”, “Causality”, “Contingency”, “Complexity”, and always “Continuity”. For my own reasons, this is my discipline when studying history. [Note: “continuity” is usually melded into “change over time”]  Pehaps we can devote a separate blog/post to these ideas. and my own study research habits as well.

   I believe that the earliest years in “our Slovakia”, were directly influenced by Rome – as ripples across a pond. This extends to many other political entities as well. Many historians espouse “continuity” as a primary factor in the study of history – Herodotus, Thucydides, Schopenhauer…etc. This we can save for a later blog/post… let me know with your comments.

    So… Diocletian has divided the Roman Empire, and the “Barbarians are at the gate”. We have looked at the Huns in our previous post, and at this moment in the territory of Pannonia, as always, there is movement. We have the Heruli, Ostrogoths, Lombards (Langobards), and Gepids as the main tribal power between the Tatra and Danube…roughly. Across Central Europe, from the Baltic Sea to the Balkan Peninsula, an awakening comes from the Slavs. Below the Carpathians (South), the Balkans bear a considerable weight from the the humanity coming off the Steppe. A significant publication by Zbigniew Golab regarding the origins of Slavs from a linguistic point of view further draws forth that we (the Slavs) have always been here. Ergo, the genetic and historical ancestors of the Slovaks have always resided here in the land near the Carpathians, and down to the Danube… at least.

   By the time Diocletian retired to his eponymous palace in modern-day Split, Croatia… he is in poor health, and passes away in 311. Some say that Diocletian was responsible for keeping the frontiers secured. Roman Gaul (modern France) is inundated by forces for and against Rome. During this period, Rome has many of the tribes as “foederati” (fed-der-ahtee)… essentially mercenaries paid by Rome to live within its borders, provided military/economic assistance, and provided with “Roman citizenship”. This was a standard practice for the “late-Roman Empire”, in which it needed the “barbarians” to help defend its frontiers… but also to quell the ambitions of the various tribes.

   I have taken time to explain some of the moments I believe are crucial in the “Migration Period” where the Romans are concerned. Yet this is entirely simplified, and in order to get the full picture, we would need at  least 4 or 5 blog/posts. A large crowd of scholars, from many disciplines, have studied (or are currently studying) this period for a good reason. Rome was the very first “complex empires” to ever exist, and in many ways it never disappeared. We will begin again with the Slavs in Pannonia, and further developments as Rome falls.

   UMBRELLA MOMENTS

   What else is going on in the world from the turn of the 1st millennium until the 3rd century AD? The accepted date of the birth of Jesus Christ is 4 BC… he will be crucified nearly 30 years later. In Asia, the Han dynasty is in its “death throes” as the Jins will eventually combine (East & West) until 316/340 AD. The Silk Road is growing from its infancy in the 2nd century BC… (+/-). In China also, porceain is invented around 100 BC. The Yamato state begins in Japan (200 AD until 600 AD). India has various dynastic rules, it is not a united entity as yet, and witnesses the “Classical Age of Hindu Culture”, In Meso-America the intricate civilizations of the various early cultures come to the fore. They are widely considered to be in league with other “cradles of civilization”. We count Meso-America alongside Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, India, and China; in this case 2,000 years before the Olmecs (another of this type) – were the pre-Incans (Caral-Supe); the “typical civilizations” in that they grew from agricultural/marine supluses of food to bolster a Central govermnent, political and religious leadership, with a dedicated system of public works, i.e., architecture, social stratification, irrigation…etc. We are so deeply imbued with the idea that the ideals of civilization came from Greece and Rome, that we forget there is an entire world where events are taking place, molding and shaping cultures into nations (or consolidated political entities), that we lose sight of the fact that history is occuring on a global scale. Unfortunately here in the Western world we are entirely “Euro-centric”, or “American/US-centric” that we don’t believe anyone but us can create history. I know, I don’t believe, that today’s problems are a result of our refusal to to look at our past with open eyes.

   “Those that cannot remember their past are condemned to repeat it” George Santyana – 1905

   I will leave you here with this blog/post, and look forward to our next meeting. Our next blog/post will be about the early proto-Slovaks and their emergence from an unknown Slavic entity around the 5th century AD. There is a reason for this, and we will get a good look at it in the next post.

   Until we meet again, I thank you very much for taking the time to read my blog/posts, and I look forward to any and all comments you may have. Please… prosim, take care of yourselves, and take of each other… no matter their politcal or philosophical bent. All we have is each other.

    Ahoj..Hello and Vitaj…Welcome!   I would have liked to post sooner but I have been dealing with the passing of one of the most influential people in my life. My dear friend Jim Rivera has left this life, and went on to explore another world. Jim was absolutely crucial in helping me to hone my skills in the back-country and the outdoors in general. We went on many adventures together, Isle Royale National Park being one trip that stands out. Through rain, snow, and sunshine… we had too many good and tough times to list. All of them were faced with quick thinking and humor. It was more than the outdoors, there were lessons in life, and I was lucky enough to work for Jim at Erewhon as well. His generosity and kindness toward not only me, but my family was one-of-a-kind. In the between time, I met many, many people that became best friends to this day. All I had met through Jim; we shared the same values about the outdoors… both in reverence and respect. There are a few years worth stories to share about him, perhaps, maybe someday I can get it on paper and publish a few in a post. I will never forget those times, I will never forget the people, I will never forget what I learned about the outdoors from him…and I will never forget Jim Rivera.

HISTORY CORNER

   Going forward, for at least 1,500 years, the entirety of Central and Southeast Europe, will be continiously overturned, overwhelmed, and changed by the arrival of numerous tribes (and tribal confederations) coming off of the Steppes to the East. When we talk about the turn of the millennium (B.C. to A.D.), like many historians, I believe the Steppe is a major factor for change, and therefore, I have my own ideas regarding the existence of the Roman Empire, and how the peoples on the frontiers shape the “Empire” into that which it became. Parallel to the rise of Rome, out on the Steppe and far to the East the Huns are beginning to gain power.

   Aside from the Quadi, the Marcomanni, and the Suebi in Central/Western Europe, the Sarmatian/Scythians are beginning to make inroads into the eastern edges of Europe. The Scythians appear first, along with the Sarmatians, and become major powers on the Pontic Steppe (the area between the Black and Caspian Seas). Previous to this, the Scythians were driven by the Medes (an ancient Iranian people) from West Asia, out onto the Steppe and into the Caucasus as well. By the 3rd century BC, the Scythians are defeated and absorbed by the Sarmatians. It is generally agreed that the Scythians, and quite possibly the Sarmatians, brought the “horse culture” into vogue at the time.*[See End Notes “1”)] The Proto-Indo-Europeans named the Scythians, translating into “shooter-archer”. Alongside them, or following them, the Sarmatians would come to be known as “those throwing darts or arrows from atop horses”. While it is folly to try and pin down exactly who the “first horsemen” were, it is generally agreed that the Steppes were the proving ground for light cavalry, and some of the best came from the East. Ancient authors often refer specifically to these “Iranic peoples” that existed in the Pontic Steppe between the Don and Danube Rivers.

   I realize that we keep revisiting this issue, but in my mind, it is truly seminal in the rising and falling of power on the continent, and will leave a lasting impression on our Slovakia for many years. The entirety of Central Europe and SE Europe (The Balkans), will be overturned, overwhelmed, and changed by the numerous tribes (and tribal confederations) coming off of the Steppe. As the Roman Empire grew at the turn of the millennium, so too did the Huns far to the East on the steppes of Central Asia. By the 2nd century AD, moving westward over the Pontic Steppe, and pushing many tribes ahead of them to the west, the Huns will dramatically change Europe. Also another notable aspect to keep in mind is that the Roman Empire is split in two leaving it with the “Western” and “Eastern” Roman Empire(s).

   It took Diocletian many years to divide the Empire into two parts for stability, as he began in the late 3rd century (286AD), and the division was not complete until just before the beginning of the 5th century (395). This was done to stabilize the empire and make it easier to administer and protect, as the empire had become too large to do either. Both capital cities, Rome and Constantinople, would bear attacks by many of the steppe-borne tribes.

   Two of the tribes who were driven westward are the Goths and Alans. Others will have names as familiar, like the Vandals, Gepids, Suebians, and lesser known – but very powerful – Rugians and Heruli. We have mentioned the Scythian/Sarmatians, and the Huns eventually would settle in their territory on the Volga in the late 4th century (370AD), conquering the Alans; taking over the former Sarmatian lands to use as their base to foray into the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire, and in time westward to the Italian Peninsula.  Despite what history will tell you, Attila and the Huns actually attacked Rome because of tribute issues, not because they were totally “blood – thirsty barbarians”. Even a cursory look at the Huns on Wiki will set the background for this narrative, and perhaps break a few more myths.

    The defeat of the Huns at the “Battle of the Catalaunian Fields” in Roman Gaul, signaled the end of the Hun threat in the Western Roman Empire, along with Atilla’s death in 453AD,and the Huns would eventually be assimilated into the surrounding populations. The Romans enlisted the the tribes from the Germanic/Gothic/Frankish territories to vanquish the Huns. While the Huns may have used Thuringians, and Burgundians as well as Gepids, Alans, and a few other tribes to attempt to get the upper hand on the Romans. This moment, across the turn of millennium, was one of deep importance, because not only was Rome unstable from time to time, the tribes on its frontiers were gathering power, and unifying to maximize their strengths against the Roman Empire.  Among these tribal connections, and movements, the people living in Slovakia come into view for the first time in this story. I am currently working on a “Part II” for this “Migratory Period”.

   UMBRELLA MOMENT:

     One outstanding statement: At the turn of the first millennium, the Silk Road (or Silk Routes* See End Notes “2”) become active and last until the 16th century A.D. (1700+/-). This system of thoroughfares leading from East to West covered more than 14,000kms (9,000mis +/-). The Han dynasty in modern-day China was beginning to exert influence with-in and with-out. Korea (Gojoseon) and the Hexi Corridor* are the Han’s focus in the Asian/Chinese theater. The “Great Wall of China” was given additions to protect the Northern route of the Silk Road, and this entity will come to be of prime importance for a vast number of those on the Steppe.

    END NOTES* 

  1) The Scythians may not be the very first of the “horse cultures”, but they certainly were one of the most famous. The history of the horse on the Steppe is timeless and runs deep into the past, with the Kazakhs more than 5,000 years back being known as early horse traders. That would mean that those surrounding cultures would have been tremendous horsemen as well. 2) There is a contention among many historians that the overland Silk Road was just one portion of the trade avenue. Many are convinced that the sea routes to Asia Minor, and the Mediterranean were as vital (or more) to the entirety of the silk trades. For this purpose, they are combined to be “The Silk Routes”. We will touch on this in our following post.

   I am attempting to take as much time as I can to describe how consequential this period in history for our lands that will come to eventually be known as Slovakia. In “Part Two” we are going to see the Slavs appear on this stage, although those people who will coalesce with the Slavs have always been here, and were autochthonous (indigenous) to our Slovakia. Again, apologies for being so late in posting, as the posts take a great deal of time to research and draft. Also my side projects and English-tutoring demand much of my time. Until we meet again… please take care of yourselves, and take care of each other.

  

   Apologies for taking so long to get this post out. It has been a very busy time, and I have to triage, leaving these blog/posts to the bottom of the pile of “work-to-be-done”. If the next month is anything this month has been, then I can only hope to post again next weekend. So then, we will advance into the Neolithic Period with inhabitants of early Slovakia.

   HISTORY CORNER

    We ended our last post with the mention of several notable ideas and terms from the the end of the Paleolithic period (2.5 million to +/- 10/9/8,000 BC), and the beginning of the Neolithic periods (11/10/9,000 to roughly 3,000 BC). As I mentioned in our prior post, there is a lack of borders between when and where these overall dates apply. We must keep in mind that the most significant development, one that demarcates one period from another, is the trend from hunter/gatherer to settled agriculture. The Neolithic humans, those from the “new” Stone Age, further cultivated their weaponry, jewelry, pottery, as well as their agricultural skills. Because of the change in climate, from Ice Age-typical conditions, to seemingly more temperate conditions, these cultural outcomes appeared at different times for different people… in the many geographical regions. That being said, we will continue on with the influencing cultures here in early Central Europe.

   By the middle of the Neolithic periods here in Central Europe, small settlements had arisen, and some might even be termed “towns” by modern standards. One of those giving its name to a Neolithic culture was Hallsttat in what is now Austria. The “Hallsttat Culture” was known to have territorial growth from its inception in the 12th century BC, and grew to its widest reach by the 6th century BC. This a notable culture because it was part of, or may have ushered in, the Bronze Age here in Central Europe. Their metal-work was considered advanced for the time and place. Very important is the fact that there were signs of social castes. While this is nothing new, I’m sure there was a wide-spread use of elite classes like chieftains, warriors, priests or shamans, and artisans of varying skills. Archeology has exhibited the chieftain’s graves as an example, along with intricate metal-crafting for belt buckles and other items. There is speculation that the Halsttaters were able to smelt iron, presaging the “Bronze Age collapse” [see End Notes]

   Breaking away from the Bronze-Iron age narrative for a moment, I want to spend a few moments on the importance of the Eurasian Steppe  for those in early Central Europe. This subject will also be a recurring theme throughout the early story of Slovakia, and is just as important as the Amber Road, Bronze/Iron Age weaponry or any of the aforementioned notables. As far as I’m concerned, the role of the Eurasian Steppe in the further development of not only Central Europe, but Europe as a whole, it is a subject I feel is vastly overlooked.

   The term “Steppe” refers to a zone of unbroken land, usually flat and grassy, but often arid and unending. The Eurasian Steppe is the largest in the world – some 8,000 km (5,000mi) wide East to West, and they are often referred to as the “Great Steppe”.  By comparison, the “Great Plains” of North America (Canada & United States) are also considered “steppes”. They are 4,800km (3,000mi) North to South, and only about 1,600km (1,000mi) East to West. The Eurasian Steppe is the largest in the world and the most significant because of its influence on history. The unbroken land area allowed for freedom of movement, mostly East/West, also has served as an “incubator”, if you will; it has influenced empires, cultures, and change – both political and societal. In a separate paper that I’m writing, I describe my theory of the “Caspian Conveyor Belt”; one in which the impact of the movement of people across the northen Caspian and Black Sea has shaped and influenced Europe for ages past. Bordered mostly by the Siberian forests to the north and the mountain ranges of the Tien Shen, the Altai, and the Himalayas to the South, the “ocean of grass” extends from from nearly the Pacific Ocean on the east to Slovakia’s doorstep here in Pannonia.

   In pre-history the Steppe were home to Proto-Indo-Europeans, Mongols, Turkic, and Uralic peoples. This flat expanse allows for, at times, the rapid movement of people. Riding over the top of the Indian Subcontinent, and Persia, many of the earliest of Europe’s ancestors arrived via this “Sea of grass”, as well as through the lands of pre-Turkey’s Asia Minor. Home to the Silk Road, which we will introduce in the next few posts, mounted cavalry, and chariots, the Steppe have given many innovations to Europe. The mass of tribes, armies, and indeed whole early civilizations owe this geographic wonder a great deal as their starting point.

   The Steppe are divided into six different regions. If there is greater interest, I will devote a post to the Steppe, but I don’t want to spend too much of our 6/7 minute read on it. Let me hear from you in the comments, and I am all too happy to expound further on this incredible place in geography and history. We will refer to it often for the next 1500 years at least, so I believe it is important to have your geographical bearings set properly.

   The last of the significant “cultures” here is the Puchov Culture. With a seamless transition from the La Tene Culture. Following the Halsttat Culture’s disappearance (and during/after La Tene), the Proto-Celtics established a center in the Trencin area near the modern town of Puchov, Slovakia. This culture arose from the Lusatian culture, which may have been a bridge between the Halsttats and the Celtic Puchovs. In the melding of the Bronze and Iron Ages, the Puchov culture puts us squarely in the time of “Antiquity”… this period has the Greeks rising and falling, as the Romans begin to exert Iron Age influence. Classical Antiquity usually refers to the Mediterranean civilizations, but I always like to connect the dots. The Puchov culture is notable for its many hill forts (Havranok/Vah River), and settlements near rivers and streams. They are called “oppidum” or “oppida” – fortified Iron Age settlements. The Proto- Celtic tribes (Cotini, Boii, Anartes) would later be taken over by the Marcomanni and Quadi (Germanic tribes) and the Dacians (Indo-Europeans/Black Sea- Carpathian tribes). The Cotini and Boii both to the Germanics and the Anartes to the Dacians; all three tribes would be assimilated and disappear, and their fates, although intriguing – have no further connection to our history going forward to the turn of the millennium (BC to AD).

   Lookout over the Vah River at Havranok

   Another significant Celtic oppida was right here in Bratislava. It is perhaps one of dozens of settlements on this site, fortified, and erected overlooking the Danube from this commanding spot. It is exactly here that Bratislavsky Hrad (Bratislava Castle) sits. Much like the site a little west of us at Devin Castle, which sits on the point at which the Morava River empties itself into the Danube; the heights in both places have been used for centuries reaching back into pre-history – and now going forward into the turn of the millennium and beyond. (Late Iron Age – c400 to 800 AD). Fort/settlements of this type served a multitude of functions, aside from protection, most were centers of commerce, hubs for surrounding roads that carry goods, and early administrative cores. It’s here at the Bratislava oppida that some of the earliest writing takes place, notably that with coinage bearing a Celtic king’s name. This is the last of the Celts in shaping our history, for they would be defeated by the surrounding tribes, mostly the Germanic and Dacian groups. As the Celts become assimilated into the stronger tribal alliances, the late B.C.’s witnesses Rome’s rise to prominence, changing the breadth and scope of Slovakia’s participation in the history of Central Europe.

   It should be noted and known; this land of ours was not the only region this change was taking place… human civilization was developing in all of the cardinal directions. My onus is to tell the world about Slovakia, from the beginning through to the end of WWI.

   At this point, as mentioned the two largest and most notable tribes are the Celtic Cotini and Boiis. Some label the Cotini as “Gaulic/Germaic” and others name them as “Celtic”. The consensus among many anthropologists is that although the Cotini lived in an area surrounded by “Germanic” tribes, they were not “Germanic” in their language. The Boii on the other hand, were a Celtic tribe known in the late Iron Age for their expansion, and also for their invasions into the burgeoning Italian Peninsula. They captured the Etruscan (pre-Roman) capital and made it their own (modern Bologna). The Boii would eventually succumb to the Romans and be driven to the Ister River (early name for the Danube), becoming shepherds in Illyria (the Balkan Peninsula).

   The Iron Age crosses the turn of the millennium, *”BC” to “AD”, and with it brings a very critical influence on this landscape with the Romans arriving somewhere between the 1st and 2nd century AD, as part of the “Danubius Limes” (limes – lee-mus). These were a series of fortifications.  The Romans are known to occupy the right (South) bank of the  Danube; a very thin strip at that. They were able also to gain a foothold on the site of the former Celtic oppida at what is now Devin Castle, and modern-day Komarno on the left bank (North) of the Danube. It would be not more than 100 years later that the Romans would venture northward into the big river valleys of the Vah, Hron, and Nitra rivers. Trencin Castle has engravings from the Romans, thus marking Rome’s most Northern point of their presence in our part of Central Europe. [See End Notes*] This sets up for our next blog/post of Slovakia’s earliest history, and in my mind, the most important… the “migratory period”.

UMBRELLA MOMENT:

   In this stretch of time – from the Stone Ages (Paleo/Meso/Neo-lithics) and into the “Ages”, humankind is undergoing rapid and indelible changes. Civilizations are beginning are succumbing to empires… a metamophosis that will be ongoing to the “Late-Modern” period.  In the Americas, the Olmecs (1200 – 400BC) will yield to the Zapotecs (700BC – 1520’s AD), both existing concurrent with the Maya 2000 BC – 16/17thc AD). The civilizations of the AMericas, Incas included, were known to have specialized calendars, highly-ritualized religious practices, and urban-centered populations. In Asia, aside from the civilizations of the Persians, and the Indus Valley cultures – China was already beginning to develop into a military and political power in its own sphere. On the African continent, besides Egypt and the “coastal cultures”, Great Zimbabwe was developing from a settlement in the early AD’s to become a commercial and military by 1000 AD, in South-Central Africa.

END NOTES:

   The “Bronze Age Collapse” was period in the 12th century BC, that refers to the events in the Mediterranean Basin, where there was a downfall of adaptive abilities by societies or cultures. In the Mediterranean areas it occurred in Hellenic (Greek), and Anatolian/Levant cultures, extending as far as Egypt, Eastern Libya, and into the Balkans. There are many periods in history in which various cultures/civilizations/empires collapse due to a vast array of possibilities. Competing theories have everything from climate, to environmental, to invasion, drought, and disease.

* I have chosen to use the most familiar citings for time periods – “AD” and “BC”. Going forward into the “AD” (Anno Domini -“year of our lord”) period it may not be as consequential, but I will continue to use “BC” (Before Christ) when referring to the eras prior to the first millennium AD. in the next blog/post, we will be in the “CE” (Common Era) as it is known now. I will stick with tradition and use “AD” when necessary, while eschewing “BCE” (Before Common Era) for the deeper past. My choice to remain “traditional”. As an “Anarcho-historian”, I could easily go with the non-Christian/neutral CE/BCE, but I want to pay homage to those that wrote history before me; I feel no need to feint being “politically correct” or neutral/secular. It is “old school” and I have been exposed to it for such a long time it feels more natural.

   As we continue on our excursion through the living history of the early inhabitants of Slovakia, followed by the Slavs, and then the forerunners of the Slovaks here in Central Europe… I hope my dear reader’s awareness and interest grows clearer regarding that which makes this particular place so rich, complex, and vexing – all at the same time.

   I thank you all for your patience in awaiting my posts. I am beginning the draft of my next post and hopefully I can publish it this coming weekend. For me, it is imperative that the world knows that Slovakia is more than hockey players and automobiles. Until we meet again, please take care of yourselves, and take care of each other.