We have had a very mild winter here in Bratislava… so far. At this writing on 4, February 2024, the temps are 12C/53-54F. It is sunny and breezy. Not what we should expect for winter. I have had a very quiet week since the above photo was taken at Jelen on Tuesday. Stanka is a dear friend, and I look up to her. She is someone I don’t get to see often enough, but I learn from her everytime we meet. My evenings in the old wine cellar are a high point in my week, as I get to see many of my “Slovenska rodina” (Slovak family) – I have been “adopted” by them. I became sick early Wednesday morning and “lost” two days to delerium and fever. I’m happy to report that I am feeling much better as of yesterday. Since my last post I have attended a birthday party at Next Apache, and I’ve also been sequestered in my apartment as well working on Prof. Homza’s e-book. Our early history is endlessly fascinating to me. This only serves to drive my curiosity to delve further into our culture as well.

HISTORY CORNER

In our last post we talked about the aftermath of the uprising of 1848 in the Kingdom of Hungary, and some of the influences that led to that moment in time. We discussed also, two of the “Five C’s” of historical thinking if you will… causality and contingency. My definitions of both can be seen upon a revisit to our last post. All in all they are: 1)Context, 2)Change Over Time,3)Complexity,4)Causality, and 5)Contingency. In the coming posts I will try and define them, and it’s important to keep in mind that there is no order in which to apply them. I will share also an acronym that I learned long ago that always helps me whenever I am looking at a given historical event, culture, or country/empire: P.E.R.S.I.A..

The nationalism that arose in the early 1820/30’s were the fuel for a fire that continued to burn long after 1848. In lieu of “historical rights”, which the Slovaks were unable to have recognized, their claim of “natural rights” were denied or looked over by the Magyars. So what does this mean? “Historical rights” are usually seen as a continuation of a political entity, which in the case of our Slovaks, would have been a formation or possession of a state after say… Great Moravia. Lacking any firm state, the Slovaks would then have to draw on their “natural rights”; those based on the fact that they had occupied their territory for as long as they did – without a “recognized or legitimate” state configuration. Here we are, in 1850, without some form of legal basis for being allowed to have our voices heard…

This is a crucial year for our Slovaks. Going forward, they will face not only a physical/pragmatic challenge, but one of existence… an “existential” struggle to prove in a verifiable context – who they are. We know well enough at this point, they have a common language, and a modicum of cross-confessional unity (agreement between the two major faiths – Catholic and Protestant). Leadership is growing, but still learning along the way. Here is the my conundrum… In more than 800 years of existing with each other, the Magyars and Slovaks had a particular give-and-take relationship. As it stands, in 1850, there is a clear break, and the connection becomes more confrontational and rebellious. It will never again be the same. Slovakia still holds the wealth of the Hungarian kingdom, as it has since 1526 when the Ottomans captured and ruled more than half of Hungary proper. From here on in, the medieval order is about to change. Magyarization is no longer a personal choice; it will be a source of frustration for our Slovaks…almost 70 years long.

I promise that my next post will go beyond this year of 1850, but I want to make it abundantly clear how much our Slovaks are charged with, and how long the road ahead them will be. They will get very little help from the outside, and their existence as a verifiable entity will be stymied at every turn by the Hungarians. In retrospect, the Magyar/Hungarians were able to promote their own nationalism, and as an extension of the knowledge that they were in fact a minority in their own “kingdom”; a further promotion of fear… their fear of autonomy for their subjects was unmatched. Since the “X Law” was decreed by Leopold II, the Magyars began their programs in the interests of a Hungarian state. The Hungarian nobility in Slovakia, the most important class, made themselves inaccessable (and scarce) to the Slovak National Movement. The lesser nobility took their cue from the magnates above them, and used their positions to interfere with and help crush the uprising. Lastly, the mass of the population – the peasants- looked to the Hungarians because they had been imbued with the notion their social/civil rights were granted to them by the Magyars… and not the Slovak revolutionary leaders. This was mostly due to a “patriarchal” relationship that the peasnts had with the nobility and their respect for that authority.

A few things stand directly in the path of the Slovaks. We know that “Magyarization” will become more intense, but the Slovaks have countered it with a developed language, and an as-yet fragile union among the whole of the populace. We know also, that Slovakia is still well behind the industrialization taking place to their west. For the Slovaks, their industrial, political, and cultural spheres are in a fragile and acquisitive phase at this point. Heading into the 1850’s, our Slovaks are challenged by more the aforementioned circumstances: all the while they exist in a state that has no intention of empowering them- much less sharing any power with them. For the part of the Habsburgs, as they may have helped the lower tier of the subjects by emancipating the serfs, and granting some rights… this could be viewed as a smoke-screen to hide their consolidation of power (termed by many as “neo-absolutism”), and in the end to punish Hungary for their rebellion (*auth. ::> I am not comfortable with the term “revolution” here, as it doesn’t fit my template or criteria for the term) Meanwhile, in other regions of the world…

UMBRELLA MOMENT

In 1850, the Potato Famine is ongoing, not only in Ireland, but Newfoundland, Belgium, the Kingdom of Denmark… essentially it struck a geographical area that comprised the northern aspects of Europe. Alongside of it is the cholera pandemic that continued into the early 1860’s. In the U.S., Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “The Scarlet Letter” is published. Los Angeles is incorporated. Great Britain begins to ship convicts to Australia (extraordinary read > “The Fatal Shore”/Robert Hughes). Franz Liszt (a frequent visitor to Bratislava) directs Wagner’s “Lohengrin” in Berlin. Brazil abolishes the slave trade. Thomas Masaryk, the 1st president of Czecho-Slovakia is born. 1850 is also the year that Johnny (“I’m your huckleberry) Ringo is born. The world lost William Wordsworth, Honore de Balzac, and King Louis Phillipe of France – among many other “children of the Enlightenment”.

I want to thank each and every one of you who may be following me, just stopped in, or had this blog pop up in a search. I have several goals for 2024, and one of them is to continue to open the world up to our history, culture, and general zeitgeist. Life here in Central Europe isn’t always perfect…where on this planet would it be? The longer that I am able to stay here in Slovakia, the more that I want the world to know that we are much more than hockey players and KIAs. I have some of the very best people as friends, and although I miss my family and friends in the U.S., I have a good foundation here. Until we meet again, please… take care of yourselves and take care of each other.

Winter has finally come to Bratislava. The temps have swung from the teens (in C/ 40’s-low 50’sF) to 0C or colder. Slight furries and freezing mix threaten us, and it’s common for winter to come late. An insensate can understand that we are experiencing a change in the patterns of weather. Heavy rains, when there shouldn’t be any, have washed out much of Central Europe. The Danube flows high and fast along the walkways here in the Slovak capital. Fed by watersheds further North and West in Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic there will water down here for quite some time through the winter. We can only hope that the freeze makes the ground stiffen and hold the water until Spring. Otherwise we will be looking at hard times for our farmers, and a tough planting season. This could filter down, leading to higher food prices, even at the farmer’s markets where I like to shop in season. I know too, after speaking to family and friends in the US, they experiencing a deep freeze in the Midwest. Weather can have a major influence in our lives. Although I rarely mention it, weather had a major impact on Europe in the 19th century. There were famines as a result of crop failures due to the weather. Weather also influenced the outcomes of many battles… and so we enter into the beginning of the 1850’s in the continued struggle for our Slovaks to be heard and ultimately recognized there are many forces influencing the outcome.

HISTORY CORNER

After the uprisings/revolutions of 1848/49, the powers-that-be in Europe were divided in their reaction to the demands of the disorganized attempts to change the various societies and cultures. Some populations were able to affect change (France, Germany) that were if not lasting, aided their goals. In Austria and Hungary however, things were much different. Hungary’s uprising/revolt was the the longest on the continent, and early on may have yielded concessions by the Habsburgs, but as they waged a war to secede from the Habsburgs, their defeat by the combined Austrian and Russian armies led to crushing martial law imposed by the Habsburgs, a reneging on earlier reforms, and in the end more pressure on the minorities in the Magyar-controlled lands of Hungary. Alexander Bach was now minister of the Interior under Franz Joseph and instituted a system of strong central control. Bach was unprincipled, and would would waffle a great deal, but he eventually garnered conservative opinions, and backing from such forces that would allow this behavior – especially the Austrian and Hungarian upper nobility. Bach was behind policies that limited freedom of the press and sought to deny public trials… not the ideals of the revolutionaries, who were hoping for change from the Habsburg monarchy. Like Bach, Franz Joseph, Ludovit Stur and others, there are a great many actors on the grand stage of 1848/49; in my opinion Lajos Kossuth would be both an indelible figure for the Hungarians, and a deterent to the energies of our Slovaks.

Initially, Kossuth praised Stur’s 6-point plan. Kossuth would make an abrupt turn as his Magyar nationalism became more fervent and deeply narrowed against the voices striving to heard. Kossuth challenged the Habsburgs for control of Hungary… all of Hungary – for Hungarians alone. The full scope of Magyarization, begun in the 1830’s, would come to bear on our Slovaks after the failed uprisings in 1848/49, and it affected the other Slav minorities. By July of 1849 with Alexander Bach centralizing power from Vienna, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia aiding Franz Joseph against the Hungarians, and Kossuth flip-flopping on promises for minority autonomy… the Slovaks were virtually back to square one.

Here, we must back-track for a moment regarding Lajos Kossuth. Kossuth was a man of shared heritage; born to a Slovak father – a Lutheran, and a mother who was not only Lutheran, but also primarily 75% “magyarized-German”. Both parents descended from houses of lesser nobility, and both houses originating in the Upper Kingdom (Slovakia). He was born in Northeast Hungary (near present-day Slovakia). Kossuth, early on before the revolts, as a brilliant and gifted speaker, championed the first minority rights in Europe. This gave the minorities in the Hungarian territiories the right to use their own language in their local administration/courts, schools/community life, and local councils as well. Kossuth would not support any sort of regional authority within Hungary based on nationality though. Even so, Kossuth accepted national demands from Romanians, Serbs, and Croats – but showed no favor to the Slovaks. It should be noted also that in September of 1848, Kossuth’s followers called for temporary dictatorial powers for him as the situation in Hungary became more desperate. Kossuth was invested with increased amounts of power, a definite lack of military experience, and a dearth of generals to lead his armies (he continually sacked them and rehired them), and this didn’t help against the Austrian (and eventually Russian) military might. In the end, despite the fact that Kossuth’s uncle, Gyorgy Kossuth, was main supporter of the Slovak national movement, it would seem the younger Kossuth feared that any autonomy for the ethnic groups would lead to Hungary becoming fragmented and tested on its territorial borders. This unwavering stance would cost him, and Hungary, dearly as he fled to exile and the Habsburgs established dominance over Hungarian affairs for another 25+ years, and affect it until WWI.

As I mentioned earlier, the Slovaks were nearly back to square-one, but not entirely on their back foot. For their activities in mid-1848, Magyar historians have called Stur and the Slovaks “counter-revolutionaries” due to their cooperation with the Court in Vienna, and the Imperial Army. The numbers simply don’t support this claim. The actual count of the Slovaks fighting for Hungary was between 20 and 30,00 (the highest claim here is 50,000 men)… while those that fought for the Austrian crown may have been around 2/3,000 (the highest claim is 10,000 men). These numbers are contended by both Slovak and Magyar historians. We do know that there was resistance by many Slovaks to be pressed into the Magyar army, and also there were many pro-Hungarian Slovaks (loyalists) that went to the aid of Kossuth’s cause. Again… a very complex history that is harder to unwrap than a bowl of spaghetti noodles.

Here at the end of the national uprising we have to take a “realpolitik” look at what the Slovaks are thinking and feeling heading into 1850. It is always my most basic approach to get a solid look at what was occuring at the time. In using an archaic historical/political/diplomatic approach, I get a better sense of what is happening on the common level. Asking “what is happening in terms of the practical, or material?”, as opposed to the existential or theoretical situations or outcomes. The Magyars were actually the minority in their own “kingdom”, from 1830 to to nearly the turn of the 20th century they comprised less than 50% of the population, and yet they still feared that any number of changes in Central Europe would put Hungary out of the standing of nationhood… making them a minority oddly enough. Here are my “worst-case” scenarios: 1) German unification engulfing the complete entirety of the Habsburg lands/realm; 2) a restructuring of the Austrian Empire based on ethnicity; and 3) any re-alignment in the power structure and geographic territories being transferred to nations other than those ruling at this time in history. While there are many other possible constructs, in the overall scheme of things as they stand in 1850, the changes that are afoot do not justify the complete suppression of the minorities (Slovaks included) in the Magyar kingdom. Hungary is still tied to Austria, Kossuth has fled to the Ottomans – eventually to the US (fascinating story), and the Slovaks remain undaunted in the face of challenges to their culture.

In a “realpolitik” look at the end of the 1848 uprisings, and heading into the 1850’s, we want to get a sense of what concerned most Slovaks. The lower classes were primarily concerned with the abolition of serfdom and the chance to increase their own welfare without the interference of the nobility. Also the Slovaks have to come to terms with the gulf in the the confessional divide which led to the apathy of the Slovak Catholicsduring the uprising – which was led by mostly Lutheran leadership. These are just two of the many pressing issues of the Slovaks in practical and material terms. There are too many to list.

Before I set us up for 1850 and beyond, I must say that I am deeply obliged to my dear cousin Pat for always asking…”what about women during this time?…etc”, I will put this humble promise forward: that I will look into the nature of woman’s historical struggle in the “ancien regimes” of both Austria, Hungary and Slovakia.

Our next post will have us forge on into the 1850’s and I want to touch on the ever-present emerging feminist political realities, as well as a few other factors that fell into place to make the uprisings happen. Here we must apply two of the “Five C’s” of historical thinking; causality and contingency are very important. Causality allows us to see many of the various factors coming into play in order for the uprisings/revolts of 1848 to occur. Contingency is one of the most difficult of the “5 C’s” to apply. This is a big leap-of-faith in that we (historians) are stating that any event depends on prior conditions. Without any one of a few factors, history would turn out differently. Thus the march of man’s deeds (or misdeeds) will effect change in the 50 years of the 19th century.

Thank you all for following and reading my posts. I am eternally grateful for your interest and curiosity. Until we meet again, please take care of yourselves, and take care of each other

A few moments of confession before we delve into the remainder of the events of 1848. As mentioned in prior posts, there are many factors and events that I have elided, or outright abridged; this is in order to compress our travel through the history of the Slovaks. From this period in the Mid-19th century going forward, our history becomes ever-more complex and if I leave anyone out, it is only because I cannot condense more than 1,000 years in a 5/7 minute post. I am cautious to demand to much time from my reader. If there is a particular moment in time you would like me to focus in on, please comment and ask…I am only to happy oblige you. Thank you.

By early 1848 Stur, Hodza, and many others were gaining poitical strength and met at a special meeting of Slavs in Vienna. This meeting would be the basis for the first-ever Pan-Slavic Congress to be held in in Prague, June 1848. Other events pre-dated and coincided with this, While Stur and Hodza were in Vienna, Hodza and others created a “14-point Demands of the Slovak Nation”. Their list of demands went beyond Stur’s earlier 6-point roster of 1847. Budapest immediately issued arrest warrants for Stur, Hodza, Hurban…et.al..This very moment witnessed an armed uprising by Serbs, Slovenes, and Croats. Thus, the Hungarians turned their attentions South. Hurban bravely attended a session of the Croatian Diet, and he spoke so eloquently on the struggle of the Slovaks, that the Diet issued a joint declaration – Croatian/Slovak in nature. This alliance, along with the audacious proclamation on the part of both groups served to do one thing only… it ignited resistance in the Hungarians and notice by the Habsburgs in Vienna.

It is precisely here that we can see the various cultures of the multi-ethnic Hungarian holdings. coming together to support each other. The Congress came about with the insistence and help of Pavel Josef Safarik (Sha-far-ik) and numerous Czech activists, among them Frantisek Palacky. Safarik is one of the great leaders of the Slavist movements in Central Europe, he was a philologist (historical linguistics), a historian, and an ethnographer. The Congress at the start was not exact in it’s overall goals and this led to quarrels and debates regarding the format and agenda. I think this illustrates perfectly the difficulty of an incredible variety of cultural intersts coming together in one place… some having animosities with others.

Almost 300 delegates were in Prague on the 2nd of June to represent Croats, Serbs, Poles, Ruthenes (at that time Ukrainian),Galicians (related to the Ukraine/Ruthenes in Poland, Czechs (Bohemians/Moravians), Slovaks, Slovenes, Dalmatians, Magyars (believe it or not), Sorbs (Slavic ethnic group in Germany -relatives of Serbs from pre-6th century), and so many smaller ethno-linguistic groups that we would have a long list. The Congress was divided into 3 sections: 1) Poles & Ruthenes, 2)All South Slavs, 3) Slovaks & Czechs. The vast majority of the delegates were Czechs and Slovaks, and surprisingly German was the primary language used. During a debate about the role of Austria in the interest of the Slavs as “the preservation of Austria”, Stur stated that their goal was “self-preservation”. It is apparent that the Austrians (& Hungarians for that matter) were not grasping the totality of the moment. This lack of a scintilla of empathy, vision, or awareness has been, and will continue to be a long-running theme leading up to WWI.

The most important moment of the Congress came when “The Manifest to the Peoples of Europe” was read. It would be very helpful to look for this manifesto online. It is very eloquent, and clear about the goals and aims of the Slavic delegates. This was a proclamation that stridently advocated for an end to oppression of the Slavic people.

The Austrians (and Hungarians…they would not meld into the “Austro-Hungarian Empire” until 1867) were in disbelief or outfight denial that such a movement would occur within their empire. Both of the ruling elite, Austrians and Magyars, continued to deny that the Slovaks existed as a political entity. By August of 1848 an uprising in Hungary had taken a very serious tone, and by December Franz Josef I revoked the “April Laws”. This was legislation passed in early 1848 (April) by Lajos Kossuth to abolish the nobility, in a cue to modernize the Hungarian national constitution. It was signed by then-Emperor Ferdinand V of Austria here in Bratislava (then Pressburg) The story of Ferdinand’s rise to the throne is captivating as he had epilepsy, and is usually depicted as feeble-minded and not capable of ruling. His sobriquets were “The Benign”…or “The Benevolent”. He abdicated to lead in Franz Josef I in December of 1848; Ferdinand may have been well-intentioned and passive, but this was no time for a ruler of his nature in the ultra-conservative Austrian Empire.

The result of Franz Josef’s revocation of the April Laws was to garner more anti-Habsburg resentment in Hungary, who was only the 3rd country in Europe to enact a law to have a parliamentary process by democratic elections (France/1791 – Belgium/1831). Under Kossuth and his burgeoning power, Austria sent in troops to militarily intervene. This led to a war for independence in Hungary against the Habsburg dynasts. Early in 1849, the wars began with Austrians against the Hungarians and the Austrians did not fare very well in the scheme of things. It wasn’t until the Russians were allied with Austria that the tide turned in mid-1849, and by August of 1849 the Hungarians were defeated.

We can ask; “what happened to our Slovaks after the Prague Congress of 1848?”. Our next post will cover the Slovaks in their quest to be taken seriously. We will begin in late-1848 and move into the year 1849 and beyond. I will attempt to outline where our Slovaks stood in this very complicated and turbulent era in the history of Central Europe. The fate of the Slovaks does not rest in their hands yet, and the struggle to survive continues.

We are looking at a period and place in history that is matched by only a few others in complexity, geography, and ethno-linguistics. Russia is an empire that has more languages and ethnicities than our region. Aside from that, I believe that the history of our theater is the most difficult to understand.

I thank each and every one who have taken the time to read this post, and share my fascination with our history and culture. In our next post I will take the time to share an “umbrella moment”, in order to grasp what else is happening in the wider world. I wish you and you families a better New Year. Until we meet again, take care of yourselves…and take care of each other

Before we begin our post on the Slovak National Awakening (SNA); I must send many apologies for the gap in time since our last meeting. I have been occupied with helping my good friend Prof. Homza with his book. I have also been socially much more active, my circle of friends is growing, and that alone greatly adds to my life here. We are also experiencing winter’s bag of tricks. Snow, freezing rain, change in temps, and generally a give and take. Most often, if it is bad out, I am content to stay home and read or write. I have also spent some time in the Slovak National Gallery looking for pieces to include in not only this post, but coming blogs to follow. I aim to adhere to my own maxim: ” if you want to know about a culture, spend time in their museums and galleries”. As we will see in this post, the art from this period represents the atmosphere of the SNA, as well as the spirit of the moment. The artists of this era are a tad behind on the timeline of Western European culture, but have a wonderful grasp of their medium overall. There are beautiful landscapes, portraits, and sculptures arranged throughout.

  I must say a few words about a new place that I was introduced to. My good friend Igor (nickname Ico/ ee-cho) has taken me to, and it is called “Next Apache”. Igor said it is a “must-see”, and he did not disappoint. We have visited a few times and I love it there. Next Apache is a small two-room established bistro connected the Main Protestant Church of Bratislava. This past week I met the owner Ben, a Canadian ex-pat in fine fashion. I was talking and I heard a song by the Tragically Hip coming from the speaker in the front room, and I got up, went around the corner, and looked right him and asked who played this. His response, “…you know the Tragically hip?”, with amazement, and it started a conversation that lasted quite some time; off and on. One Monday a month he has a blues gig in the small space, and I will definitely be there. This is a fantastic place for kava,pivo,vino and conversation. It is a neighborhood hot-spot as well as a warm and inviting place for all others. Ben is affable and well-spoken;Next Apache is a “must-experience” in Bratislava… Ico hit the nail on the head.

HISTORY CORNER

In our last post I attempted to limn out a few of the factors leading up to the SNA. To summarize: 1) Clerical intelligentsia developed a language more Slovak than Czech, 2) A majority of Protestant educators, along with Catholic priests began to further a form of “linguistic nationalism” to highlight the Slovak culture within the Hungarian state. 3) Stur comes to a compromise with Catholic adherents of Bernolak, whichs aids in the development of the Awakening (and later a modern Slovak language).

This relationship between language and culturism (or nationalism) occurs throughout the multi-ethnic Hungarian Kingdom; it is not the only imperial entity in which this is happening, and by no stretch of the imagination are the Slovaks alone in their struggle… as we shall see.

I want to spend a moment to refresh your memory regarding our moment in the Autumn of 1848. For some, perhaps you will remember the basic historical phenomena of the revolutions of 1848. This is essentially a period that sees upheaval with its roots in Sicily, spreading to Italy, France, Germany, and on to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The various revolutions began on common issues, yet they all ended in failure and the resulting repression from the monarchies and states throughout Europe was brutal. It is very important to point out that the revolts (or upheavals) of 1848 had very little to do with Marx and Engels as they were more concerned with “Industrial capitalism” and the Industrial Revolution…. the impact of their work was still at least a few years away.

The European revolts centered on the issues of removal of the old monarchical structures and in creating independent nation-states; in short these movements were liberal and democratic in nature – an outgrowth of “romantic nationalism”. At this point in history, East Central Europe was still mainly agrarian, and just beginning to catch up to the Industrial Revolution in the West. Incidentally, 1848 was the year that my German ancestors (Mother’s side) left Thuringia for the United States.

The revolutionary spirit traveled from Paris, to Vienna and then to Budapest where the Hungarians were attempting to cast off the Habsburgs. Three years prior (c. 1845), the Hungarian authorities allowed the printing of Slovak language papers and press. First was Stur, then J.M. Hurban, and they among many others began to sow the seeds of the movement. They promoted education, Sunday schools (in Stur’s Slovak – of course), libraries, theaters, and many other social gatherings and functions. Of note; The Farmer’s Association was founded – it was the first credit cooperative in Europe. By 1847 Stur spoke of his 6-point platform regarding the issues of the politics and economy of Slovakia,

Here are his points: 1) As Stur was a member of the Hungarian Diet (Svolen) he wanted to proclaim that serfdom ws to be abolished, as a sort of buy-out using state funds, loosening Slovak serfs from their Magyar masters at minimum expense to the serfs. 2) Abolish the patrimonial courts (ruled by the upper classes), and free commoners from the control of the nobles. 3) Allow commoners to represent themselves – to be heard – in County government and the Hungarian Diet. 4) The freeing of privileged towns from County jurisdictions, and allow royally chartered their representation by strength in voting right vis-a-vis the Diet. 5) Abolish the privilege of the nobility, making everyone equal in the court. Abolish the tax exemptions for the nobility, and allow for the service of commoners in public office. 6) Ensure freedom of the press

Stur also raised the issue of Slovak as the language of government. It should be noted (and known) that while Stur wanted to work within the framework of Hungarian law…yet he advocated for total revolution and separation. This was to include any interference in either of the religious confessions (Catholic & Protestant). It is hard to describe that the modern Slovaks don’t carry the resentment towards the Magyars that I do. The Slovaks were continually oppressed for nearly 1,000 years and yet most Slovaks shrug their shoulders and write it off to”history”. But in doing more research, and in talking to many Slovak experts in the historical, political, and cultural aspects of this “union” between the two – I am beginning to grasp what occurred in the past. The Slovaks were “too nice” to the Magyars, and succumbed to their rule as result of it. We have witnessed in past posts how the Hungarian Kingdom changed the political and cultural landscape to their advantage by subjugating and subduing the Slovaks. They existed as serfs and laborers for the crown of St. Stephen, had their resources mined and reaped to the benefit of the “kingdom”. For this reason I always subsistute “the Upper Kingdom” for “Upper Hungary” when discussing Slovakia in the past. Without it the Hungarian Empire would not be what it became. During the Ottoman occupation, the Slovaks were the drivers of Hungary’s economy, moreso than Romania, Dalmatia, or any of the holdings of the empire in the Balkans. A period of almost 160 years,,,1541 -1699. Even the Austrians were complicit in this behavior, as the relationship with Hungary ebbed and flowed from ally to adversary, and back again. The history of this land, between the Baltic Sea and the Balkan Peninsula is the penultimate example of constant change, and I have learned a great deal from my stay here. Nonetheless, there are always many sides to any one story and this story bears telling, no matter how you view any of the sides.

As I mentioned, the year 1848 was a time of intense tumult in the whole of Europe, but it wasn’t the only place that experienced a turning of the tide in human history. Our “Umbrella Moment”: In the U.S. the California Gold Rush began, the Mexicans sign a treaty with the US ending the Mexican-American War and gave away what would become the state of Texas and the rest of the border-forming territories of the Southwest. Marx and Engels publish The Communist Manifesto/ still it will take another 5 to 10 years for its impact to be felt overall. Scientists discover a moon belonging to Saturn. In Ireland the “Great Famine” continues… and Wyatt Earp, Louis Tiffany, Paul Gauguin,, and Antonio Enes are born.

I will close here as we are exactly on the doorstep of the hard events of the Slovak National Awakening. There is much that I have left out, and although it is germane, I don’t want to have a greater read-time than 5/6 minutes. Our next post will follow closely (Friday/Saturday) and we will visit the actual occurrence of the Awakening and the resulting pushback from the Hungarians propelling us into the 1850’s and outward toward the latter 19th century. I am learning that this entire movement and the relationship between the Slovaks and Magyars (Hungarians) is absolutely complex; far more than I have ever studied in any history. Very few empires in history contained as many ethno-linguistic cultures than Hungary’s territory, and each had a very complex history with it. We can see the evidence of it in Stur’s need to work within Hungarian law and to not break away entirely.

I appreciate everyone that has taken the time to read this missive, and I promise to be more proactive and design to post in a more timely and consistent fashion. I wish you all well and please remember to take care of yourselves… and take care of each other.

Post Note: I have a glitch in photo app that I will have to work out in order to embed art of this period. I promise to have it worked out for our next post on Friday/Saturday… thank you for understanding.

   The days are beginning to cool off and shorten. Although the trees have not begun to turn, there is a bit of a crispness to the air in the morning. Since it has only been in the mid-low 20’sC (68-75F), I am going to hold off riding in the late-afternoon and stay with my short rides to where the Morava and Danube meet, always in the morning. I do it 2 or 3 times a week to get the exercise and release.

   I was going to prepare a “special” blog for mid-week last, but alas, I became engaged in more social engagements. I played drums for the second time in more than 4 years, this went much better than the first time I played. In spite of a few hiccups here and there, all concerned were content with my play as it was a blues jam at a great little place called Jazztikot. It’s just off Hlavne Namestie (Main Square), and it is the perfect spot for Blues and Jazz. It has an “old club” feel, it’s small, and it feels like being in B.L.U.E.S. or Kingston Mines in Chicago…blues hotspots to be sure. It took me some time to wind down after, and luckily my buddy Ildar was there to take a few photos.

   Last evening (Tuesday 4th Oct.), we assembled at Zlatny Jelen for our weekly dinners, and it was great fun. On some occasions, a speaker will give a short talk about a subject regarding Slovakia, and the gentleman who spoke (in Slovak…of course) gave a talk about economic development in Slovakia. Last week for example, Prof. Homza presented his essay on Coloman the Hungarian King in the late-11th/early 12th centuries. My friend Daniel explained for me in English what was being said. Although I listen intently, I have a tough time picking out words that I know. My problem isn’t speaking it as much as hearing it. It is still too much fun for me; many speak English and the conversations I have with these men and women only helps to understand modern Slovakia all the better. I speak to former professors, ambassadors, politicians, judge advocates, and many more professionals both active and retired. One of my favorites is Emil Bartko, he is the former director of the SND (Slovak National Dance Company), and he makes me laugh, think, and question everything all in one short conversation. Everyone is very kind to me and they embrace me as though I am one of their own. Especially Vlado, the owner, chef, and genius behind the whole operation. He has pledged his help to get my visa to aid Prof. Homza – his good friend.

Note: The above was written 2 weeks ago, and I had intended to post it but ran out of time. Since then, I have been busier each day, and I will include my current standing and the History Corner as well.

Today is 14 October and I celebrated my cousin Randy Erfft’s birthday, as I did my own two days ago. The weather was fantastic on Thursday past, and I spent the day with my good friend Ildar. We went for a short session at krcma (kerch-ma) and then went up near the castle to our favorite Pan-Asian restaurant – Jasmine. We had a late-afternoon meal on the patio and walked back into the Old Town. At Krcma one of my favorite waitresses, Lenka, was celebrating her birthday as well… what a surprise! With a good 30 years between us, I joked that she was just a year or so older than my own daughter… they are alike in that they are very sweet, and yet can be firebrands in their own ways.

   The introspection that I have been experiencing the last few days is warranted, and I guess to be expected. I never really thought about reaching any “older age”, I just have been taking what I have been given. I really try to live as if each day is a gift. I avoid making plans too far ahead, and at this point in my life, I revel in the fact that I am here doing what I wanted to do my whole life…write about history and see some of the world around me. I have been graced with meeting some of the best people ever while on this journey.

HISTORY CORNER:

In the period of the early 19th century, the Slovaks were attempting to define their objectives and ideas of exactly their nation should be. They explore these aims as if they were a nation with historic rights. It has been mentioned earlier that there are two basic approaches to the merit of nationhood. One is natural rights, and the other historic rights. In the case of our Slovaks they held natural rights, meaning they were long-time inhabitants of their territoy; they just did not possess the administrative reach to hold national rights. In the realm of natural rights, they held a collective memory of a shared history, and thus would be able to conclude with a well-formed language to draw their goals and aims to progress to nationhood.

Ludovit Stur (Shtur) would provide a unified language by 1844, after being refused assistance by the Czechs in using idioms from both languages. Stur decided to adapt an entirely new Slovak language combining all three dialects of Slovak (East, Central, & West). The period leading up to this moment (the 1820’s and 30’s) were filled with a coming of age for the Slovak intelligentsia, led mostly by Protestants that had been influenced by the Germans and Czechs since the Reformation. They continued to push for cultural and linguistic separation during this “in-between” period, but still attempted to work within the framework of the Hungarian state. Once they raised the political conciousness of the of the average Slovak citizen, they would have completed nearly half of their struggle. I would consider this the sencond stage of their struggle, with the first being Bernolak’s codification of Slovak as separate from Czech – linguistically speaking. This was certainly the onset of Slovak ethnicity as being distinct from Hungarian, but the notion of belonging to a Hungarian nation was still not questioned. Stur and this notion will appear again in further posts as he is a giant in our history.

The policy of “Magyarization” was still being implemented to assimilate those inhabitatnts of the kingdom that were not fully “Hungarian” in the eyes of the ruling aristocracy. There are very many Slovaks that influenced the National Awakening and I will include a short list in the next post when 1848 occurs. At this time in the 1830’s there are still a few issues getting settled, namely Jan Kollar and P.J. Safarik involved Czech as a component of the Slovak language; both men were of the mind that any Slovak language would have to be in a sense “Czecho-Slovak”. This ideal didn’t go well with either Slovaks or Czechs. Both men were influenced by German Romanticism and as such believed that only the educated would be speaking this language.

An aside for a moment. To make matters clear for my reader, most of the leaders of this era were educated at either Protestant-based universities, or Catholic-based universities. Some were trained in Prague, some in Germany, very few in Slovakia itself because there were only one or two institutes of higher learning at the time…Kosice, Trnava, and a mining academy in Banska Stiavnica. Also it is very important to remember that Western Slovak was based mostly on the Czech liturgical legacy.

Onto our stage comes two very influential men. Pavel Jozef Safarik (Sha-far-ik) and Jan Kollar. As I have stated in past blogs, the period prior to the 1840’s, was one of gathering consensus and attempting to derive a common language. Both Kollar and Safarik were widely published, western-trained, and opposed to Bernolak’s codification. In fact Kollar’s “Slavy Dcera” (“The Daughter of Slava”) was widely read and became endeared as a major epic poem in Slavdom at the time. It carried themes of “All-Slavic unity”, the struggle of the Slavs, the exultation of their freedom (as it were), and the fruitless Germanization/Magyarization of Slavic cultures from time immemorial. As this epic poem was written in Czech with some Slovak mixed in, Slavy Dceera was claimed by the Czechs and used in their national awakening as well. Kollar and Safarik were determined that the fate of the Slovaks would lay in balance with the Czechs; Safarik believed well enough owing to the background of both men and their training/relationships between Germany and the Czech Kingdom, and their homeland – Slovakia. Safarik was born in Kobeliarovo in eastern Slovakia, and Kollar in Mosovce not far from my own relatives that live in Turcianske Teplice District of the Zilina Region. Mosovce is in the historical region of which Martin is located, and also home to the Turiec on the western edge of the Velka Fatra. Martin (formerly home of the awakening and Matica Slovenska) Both men were products of the late-Enlightenment/early-Romantic period, and both were wholly committed to a Slovak and Slavic awakening.

I will spare my reader a bluster regarding the notion that the Czechs were the answer to the Slovak’s problems, or that the Slovaks needed the Czechs to advance their ideals against the Austrians or Hungarians. I will save it for one of my last posts which will be at WWI.

The legacy of Safarik (1793-1852) and Kollar (1795-1861) enshrines them in the pantheon of Slovakia’s greatest. They were major proponents of Pan-Slavism in the 19th century, and they carried this message to whomever would read them, or listened to them speak. If I have been remiss to explain Pan-Slavism, it is an advocation to bring together all Slavic peoples in an idealistic reaction against their empires, and to boost the integrity of those cultures toward social-equity issues they faced in said empires. If anything, for their faults (in my eyes), Kollar and Safarik gave the Slovaks a feel for modern culture going forward for the first time in their existence. They also gave the Slovaks, through the use of their poetry and songs published in Central Slovak, a never-before rooting in the language of their homeland. This was not lost on the younger Slovaks, either Protestant or Catholic; it galvanized them heading into the years leading up to and including September 1848…our next post.

This period is a most important time in Slovak national memory, Slovakia’s press for status as a recognized entity, and a role in the revolutions that rushed across Europe and the Habsburg Empire. For me personally, 1848 to 1914 is one of the most intriguing stretches in our history. For all Slovaks, this is a period in our history that we as a culture and nation flex our strength in unity… something that happens for the first time in our nearly 1,000 years of existence. We did not have quite this consenual will, possess an identity, and feel able to shrug off the veil that we were “less than” in our own territory. After the “Umbrella Moment”, I will spend a short paragraph to reveal my position on the overall history of the Slovan/Slovaks to this point. I will appeal to my readers to view Dr. Martin Homza’s series on YouTube about the early history of the Slovan/Slovaks. There are 20 entries, you enter “Slovenske Dejiny” in the searchbar, and there they are… a fascinating chronicle of our beginning to the early Middle Ages. They are subtitled and they are half-hour vignettes depicting a history that very few are familiar with.

UMBRELLA MOMENT

At this moment in history, let’s say 1825 to 1840, this is what is taking place elsewhere around the world: In the US the Erie Canal opened (1825), and a revolt by the Decembrists was quashed in Russia. Poet William Blake and Ludwig von Beethoven passed away in 1827. In 1830 the US begins the removal of native tribes east of the Mississippi, leading to a Supreme Court case, and eventually to “the Trail of Tears” in 1838. Uruquay has a civil war that lasts from 1839 until 1851. In Afghanistan, Great Britain and Russia engage in the “Great Game”. Afghanistan, along with Persia (Iran), Khiva (Uzbekistan,Kazkhstan, and Turkmenistan) and others act as a buffer to Russian expansion southward, are territories that Britain influences to hold its northern border…sound familiar? [sorry, I couldnt resist the sarcasm].

In closing I would like to take a moment to sum up my feelings about Slovak history to this point. I have been doing extensive research to gain a better grasp of our history and I know that I don’t know it all…I’m not sure I will be able to. Some aspects that I am sure of is this: 1) that my opinion is constantly evolving, 2) that I have let go of my animosity toward the Hungarians, Czechs, and Austrians…it’s just history and I have to learn to see it for what occured and nothing more. I am learning to keep from taking it so personally, and 3) for a country that has a history such as ours, I don’t know of many Slovaks that beat their chests and get over-nationalistic… and I’m sure they are out there. Finally, I am very happy to be getting so close to where my Grandparents came from; I am endeared to this culture and it to me. I will continue to unearth as much as possible to try and bring our history to a world that doesn’t know about us. We are very young and this only works in our favor. There are growing pains, to be sure, but the Slovaks are a resilient lot and they will find their way…independent of what is going on around them.

I thank each and every one of my readers for taking the time to read my posts. I vow to be a bit more timely and not shirk my duty to get this post out weekly. Until we meet again, take care of yourselves and take care of each other.

Although I live in Bratislava, I can see all of Slovakia spread out before me from here in the southwestern corner. From down here in the Pannonian Basin (Danube Plain) eastward to the Carpathian Mountains and arcing around to the top in the Tatras. From the peaks of the Tatras I see the Fatras down to the South, and to the east, my right, I watch the mountains arc and stretch to the Danube River to meet the Leitha Mountains – the only meeting point of the Alps and the Carpathians. Standing atop the highest point in Slovakia (and the Carpathians themselves) on Gerlachovsky Stit (Shtit) the mighty Vah River begins to wind to the Danube. From its cold mountain run-off and reaching more than 400km (250mi), it is our longest river, fed by too-many-to-count depositing water from the south-facing aspects of the Tatras into the Danube. With misty valleys in both the Velka Fatra and Mala Fatra mountains, an ancient and mysterious sense pulls at ones imagination. This is an naturally gorgeous land and I everywhere I go, I am drawn in by the incredible history that has stirred under her trees and on her open expanses. In all of its cardinal points, Slovakia is my “Sleeping Beauty” and now in our look back into her history she re-awakens and reveals herself as she blossoms into a national awakening.

HISTORY CORNER

At the start of the 19th century, we should keep a couple things in mind: 1) that this an embryonic stage for events that will occur in 25/30 years from now; 2) the Slovaks are and large not exposed to a widely generalized language as yet. Aside from Bernolak’s codification of the Slovak language, there was a lack of literate skill, meaning that a significant portion of the population could not read of write… this was still the domain of church leaders, university and monastic scholars, and the upper classes. This includes the nobility, and the mostly- German burghers of the towns. These two examples are just two of many obstacles the Slovaks would have to navigate going forward.

Another issue that the Slovak would have to overcome was the fact that they had to base their claims as a nation on natural rights, as opposed to historical rights; in effect they did not have a territorial or administerative basis (historical right), yet they were long-time occupants of their territory (natural right) Although the Slovaks had the energy and drive to join this new and modern age, they weren’t as well prepared as their nemeses… the Magyars. Their creation would take time since many dialogues were taking place about not only what literary language should be used, but alos how to work with or around the fact that there were others in their territory, i.e., Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Croats, Poles…etc. This wasn’t a social/cultural question as much as a major political question because a national consensus will be on the line.

Intermingled with the issues of language, and political consensus, are yet more daunting tasks like education, general welfare, and sufferage. I would like to say a few words about the study of history in general; it is silly to think that “one issue”, or “event” leads to a change in the historical path of a cultural group. There are always a myriad of actions and ideas that influence any historical outcome. As the early leaders of the awakening discussed these factors, they were also attempting to settle and centralize political and social entities that didn’t have a voice or focus due to the stranglehold the Hungarians had on the many ethnic groups in the kingdom. The Hungarian noble class considered themselves part of the “Hungarian nation”, even as those in Slovakia (Upper Hungary) spoke Slovak (any of the many dialects) and some deemed themselves as “Slovaks”. The true Slovaks that dwelled in town and country were not given specific rights, at least none that were lasting. Many laws were adopted to more or less enfranchise the native Slovaks, but most were never enforced or were ignored/erased altogether. This political give-and-take made it difficult for those in the early 19th century to rely on any particular group to aid in raising political or national consciousness. The Slovaks did have a strong ally in the Croats, a relationship of shared aspirations, and I will touch on that in a later post.

One of the biggest issues at hand was the lack of political experience; this could be drawn on to propel the awakening forward. We are talking about a culture that was barely getting by, in the larger scheme of things, as its existence was essentially habd-to-mouth. There was no real voice for them in the Hungarian Diet, and this was a moment in Slovakia’s history when its survival was increasingly challenged. Example: In 1790, Leopold II (Habsburg) recognized Hungary as a free and independent kingdom, which in turn set in motion the “guarantee of national status” and thus certified Hungarian/Magyar nationalism. Keep in mind that the kingdom included many more ethnicities than the Magyars, who were easily outnumbered and rarely used kindness to extend their rule. In the late 18th century, the door was flung open for “Magyarization”. This was a policy by which the Hungarians attempted to push their language and culture on all of their subjects. Even though the Austrian Habsburgs had decreed that German was the “official language” of both realms, this did not deter the Hungarians. Magyarization will appear again in the 19th century, with near-devastating results for our Slovaks. The Hungarians also viewed Leopold’s edict as a pathway to overcome the loss of its standing in population since the Ottomans still occupied most of its territory.

All of the issues I have recounted are just wrinkles in the fabric for the Slovaks to iron out, mostly by trial and error; they will persevere onward as a testament to their resolve, earnestness, and national character. Entering the stage in the next post will be some of the biggest names in the Slovak pantheon: Kollar, Stur (Shtur), Fandly, Holly and many others. In one form or another by the 1820’s and 30’s language will be one of the hottest topics of discussion… to be ultimately settled by Ludovit Stur, and along with the others he will work with and sometimes against the Hungarians to achieve some measure of freedom for our Slovaks.

   The start of September has been pleasant here in Bratislava. Nearly gone is the heat of summer, the days have been marked by highs in the hi-20’s (84F) and relative humidity in the 30/40 percentile. Although it can get a bit “sticky” at night, it is nothing like I am familiar to in the Midwest of the US. Apparently there is a “heat dome” in Western Europe (with temps in the low/mid 30’s [94-98F] and hotter yet in Spain), and this will only shed off a small amount of heat here into Central Europe.

   In the weeks past, there was a great deal of rainfall and it has slowed cruise traffic on the Danube. The Stare Mesto (Old Town) has been noticably quiet without the tourists from the cruises. For us it is nice to be able to find a table at the cafes and bistros in the Old Town. For me, it is absent of the people from the US complaining about things they take for granted in their own culture, i.e., ice, paper napkins (most places use linen), and the service…which is relaxed and not “hovering”. There are many times when I am engaged by these travelers after hearing me speak a mix of Slovak and English to the kids at my favorite place. “Excuse me, are you from the US?”, is how it starts; then as I try to keep the conversation brief, they are shocked that I have decided to retire here. When I read off a litany of my dislikes, they are taken aback by my frankness; sensing this, I wish them a good trip and go back to my reading and writing. The kids (wait staff) tell me that only the people from the UK have “least-likeable manners” than those from the US. I just shake my head and tell them it will all be over in a few weeks. I should be quick to point out that not all of the tourists are lacking in etiquette, but it is always the few that shed a lasting bad impression. All in all life is good here for me, I’m beginning to feel more at home (an ease) with my new place, and it should improve when I begin my language lessons at the end of the month.

HISTORY CORNER

    The official name of this building is “Palace of the Hungarian Discount and Exchange Bank”. I have more research to do regarding this structure. To the left can be seen the Caryatids that adorn the building that wraps around onto Panska Ulica.

THE HISTORY CORNER

As the 18th century ends in Slovakia, there have been the births of a few of the most strident voices of Slovak nationality and culture. Jan Holly (1785), Jan Kollar (1793), and Pavol Josef Safarik (1795). These men, among many others will lead the charge for a greater position in the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century. There are many more that will arise and I won’t leave them out.

Since Stephen consolidated his power in the 11th century, Hungary grew with territorial aims and goals to subjugate those they conquered. It was Stephen that cautioned future rulers of the Kingdom of Hungary when he said, “a country using only one language and having only one custom is weak and frail”. I believe this advice would go unheeded and prove to a weakness in the end for the Hungarians. The Hungarians can be seen in this history as at once being amenable to legislation and edicts, and also very reactionary… this my interpretation vis-a-vis the Habsburgs.

As for this moment at the turn of the century, the heirs of Maria Theresa have attempted to legislate and install more freedoms for the lower classes. Joseph II would lead the greatest reform in the empire, reaching our Slovaks by enacting the Peasant Patents. This essentially gave the peasants freedom of movement, once they have made payment to the lords for said freedom. It is important to point out (and to remember) that the population of Hungary proper was severly reduced due to the ongoing wars with the Ottomans; as a result the entire southern portion of Hungary was nearly devoid of people. At the time labor was still cheaper than land, and as the post-Enlightenment ideals of economics mature, we shall see that such “commodities” as land and “human capital” (labor) will become more market-driven. There is still a great deal of the movement of people as the Industrial Revolution is beginning, along with heightened urbanization. At the risk of repeating myself, the Kingdom of Hungary was outside of the Holy Roman Empire (1804). It was also ruled by two crowned heads for a time. Ten years after taking over the the Kingdom of Hungary (1536), the kingdom’s capital was moved by the Austrians to here in Bratislava; it would remain the coronation center of the Kingdom of Hungary until 1830. A move that cemented the Habsburg monarchy as the dominant power in Central Europe. Austria would be able to count on the Czech lands of Bohemia, and Moravia to be a leading edge going into the 19th century, as far as industrial ouput is concerned. Hungary at this time leans heavily on the Slovaks to be their economic engine.

“Umbrella Moment”…Europe And The World At The End Of The 18thC

This a period that witnesses the Enlightenment spawn 3 revolutions in a short stretch of time: 1) American, 2) French, & 3) Haitian. Slave trading increases across the Atlantic while it steadily declines in the East (Russia, Asia, & the Indian Sub-Continent). The Industrial Revolution begins primarily in England on the back of the cotton trade and this revolution leads to even greater changes in not only human cultural and societal terms, but in terms of the environment, i.e., deforestation, pollution, and marine manipulation (canals, channels, dams, etc.). European colonization touches every corner of the globe. Numerous wars occur: Wars of Spanish Succession, aforementioned revolutions, Seven Years War, and in India the Mughals come to the end of their reign (also the end of medieval India). This a moment in history of great expansion; not only in terms of territories and economies, but also in the sense that there is a new manner of thinking, and problem solving provided by the Enlightenment.

I will prepare my next post to follow close on the heels of this blog. In the 19th century we will truly witness “the national awakening” of our dear Slovaks. As I have mentioned in past posts, I want to slow down and advance perhaps at least decade by decade in “the long 19th century”. As always, I appreciate all of you that have been following and commenting. I am grateful to have you join me on my odyssey, and I truly hope you are able to gain some insight into this wonderful country and its history. Until we meet again very soon, please take care of yourselves and take care of each other.

  

Apologies for not posting in more than two weeks. I have been very busy on the social side. I am very happy to have many friends that keep me busy, and visiting has become one of my great joys. I am submitting various documents for my “mission visa” to serve under the aegis of Prof. Homza and to carry on getting the word out about the compelling history of our dear Slovaks. I don’t want to waste any time on my social life; so for the sake of history – we will get right to it.

HISTORY CORNER

As we have come this far in the history of the Slovaks, I would like to slow down a bit and attempt to draw a clearer picture of the growth of “Slovakia” in the hearts and minds of the people themselves. These people lived in what is essentially the territory they inhabit today. It was called “Upper Hungary”, by the Hungarian/Magyar rulers…I call it the “Upper Kingdom” because it was incredibly vital to the KIndom of Hungary as a whole. It is true that Hungary held a great many people under its thumb: Romanians, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs… and many others would push for independence. (I use the modern terms for these people and territories.) Hungary considered the vast number of ethnicities under their shield as “Hungarians”, and no more so than the Slovaks. Their history has never been “nascent”, or “budding”. They have always been a cultural phenomena, and there has always existed a historical narrative associated with them. In parallel, there has also existed a narrative to keep the Slovaks in an ambiguous state, and this parallel was in place well after the dual state of Czecho-Slovakia was formed in the aftermath of World War One.

We left off our last history corner with Bernolak and his codification of Slovak as a language; the continuation of identification as a known group of “Hungarian subjects”. As it has been noted in previous posts, Slovak as a language was not among the “official” tongues of the Hungarian crownlands. For many years that title was held by first by Latin, then Magyar (Hungarian), German, and others as a lingua franca. The Slovaks simply didn’t exist as a separate ethnicity in the eyes of the Hungarians. As I have been learning at the elbow of Prof. Homza my constant single question is: how do we establish that the Slovaks were “more than” what the Hungarians were claiming?

The parallel of denial of Slovakia’s history comes from those simpathetic to Hungary’s “epic” of history. It pivots on the myth that they are the descendants of the Huns. Modern genetic studies suggest they are more closely related to the Tatars, and Bashkiris of the Ural region of the Russian Steppe. Certainly not Mongol or “Hunnic”, the name seems to be derived from the language they spoke; Ugro-Finnic. Manufacturing history is the fuel of nationalism, and none are more “overproud” of their nation than Hungary. I have stated many times in the past that the Slovaks were given a “subaltern” treatment by the Magyar/Hungarians. Subaltern is a term that means “less than”, or “subordinate”. The denial of the Slovaks as a viable culture was carried on by the Hungarians until WWI.

The question here is just this: “How does one go about processing and building a history based on fact and not conjecture or supposition”. The answer dwells in archeology first, a common collective of one’s shared history, and territorial intregrity. The Slovaks lacked administration of a territory, and were hidden behind the veil of the “Upper Kingdom” for nearly 1,000 years. They did have the archeology and shared/collective memory, just not a strong linguistic history… that all changes in 1787.

I have pointedly said that my period of study – the Enlightenment until the 1st World War – is the most fascinating for me. It is here that Slovak intellectuals come to the fore and begin the push for the Slovaks to appear as more than a rag-tag group of subjects in the Hungarian, and eventually Austro-Hungarian Empires. The stage is becoming set, and our actors are taking their places. Scholars place Great Moravia as the last collective memory of the Slovaks, albeit it was in its prime almost 1,000 years past (9th and early 10th centuries respectively), the legacy of Great Moravia would live on in the memory of Svatopluk and his uncle Rastislav. Rastislav was responsible for initiating Cyril and Methodius’ establishment of the Glagolitic alphabet and thus gave the Slovaks a central language to use in not only church, but everyday dealings. The old Church Slavonic would be in effect for quite some time as well.

In cataloging how the basics of historiography are applied, my aim is for my reader to better understand what is actually at stake in giving life to the Slovaks of the past, and in doing so, perhaps gain a foothold on this history that can seem so baffling and convoluted. The story of Slovakia puts its roots further yet into the ground at the beginning of the 19th century and we will see further in my next post where and how it grows from this point. Historiography is applied when there is a critical examination of certain sources, and the following synthesis is a result of critical examination of the details.

To be clear, the Slovaks may have had a “collective memory”, as well as a culture exhibited in shared confessional experience; art, literature, and an identifiable territory. What they lacked – by any metric – was territorial integrity, administerial/justice networks, and control over their economy. For the next 100+ years this ownership would be held in Hungarian bondage that used increasingly suppressive measures to control the Slovaks. Prior to Bernolak, the Slovaks communicated firstly in any number of dialects of their liturgy. After 1787, the ideas of Pan-Slavism become a greater issue for many of the ethno-linguistic groups in the Austro-Hungarian Empire… we will visit Pan-Slavism as well. By this time (1800), the Slovaks have developed a particular kinship with the Croats. As a reflection into the future, the 1910 census reveals at least 15 distinct language groups, and surprisingly German (23%) was the most spoken, with Hungarian 2nd (19.5%). All of this in spite of the Hungarians pushing for theirs to be the official language used in schools, courts, and everyday life.

I am going to leave us here at this point, and open my next post with the 19th century in the heart of Europe, giving my interpretation of how the Enlightenment touched the Slovaks (or not), and the growing struggle for greater rights needed by the Slovaks – among the many groups under the Hungarian yolk. I appreciate any and all of you that have stopped by to read this post. I will publish another post rather quickly, as I have begun to amass more research on the Enlightenment/Post-Enlightenment in Austria-Hungary. Thank you from the very bottom of my heart, and until we see each other shortly…take care of yourselves, and please, take care of each other.